Leukemoid reaction and autocrine growth of bladder cancer induced by paraneoplastic production of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor – a potential neoplastic marker: a case report and review of the literature

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Abstract
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor produced by nonhematopoietic malignant cells is able to induce a leukemoid reaction by excessive stimulation of leukocyte production. Expression of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and its functional receptors have been confirmed in bladder cancer cells. In vitro studies have demonstrated that granulocyte colony-stimulating factor/receptor exhibits a high affinity binding and this biological axis increases proliferation of the carcinoma. Urothelial carcinoma of the bladder is rarely associated with a leukemoid reaction and autocrine growth induced by paraneoplastic production of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. In the world literature, there have been less than 35 cases reported in the last 35 years. The clinicopathological aspects, biology, prognosis and management of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor-secreting bladder cancers are poorly understood.

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