A Comparison between Variable Deficit Irrigation and Farmers’ Irrigation Practices under Three Fertilization Levels in Cotton Yield (Gossypium hirsutum L.) Using Precision Agriculture, Remote Sensing, Soil Analyses, and Crop Growth Modeling

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Abstract
The major global challenge for the coming decades will be increasing crop production with less water consumption. Precision agriculture (PA) and variable deficit irrigation (VDI) are management strategies that help farmers to improve crop production, fertilizer’s efficiency, and water use efficiency (WUE). The effects of irrigation (IR1 = variable deficit irrigation; IR2 = farmers’ irrigation common practices) under three fertilization (Ft1, Ft2, Ft3) treatments were studied on a cotton yield, on various indicators for more efficient water and fertilizer use, and on plant growth characteristics by applying a number of new agrotechnologies (such as TDR sensors; soil moisture (SM); PA; remote-sensing NDVI (Sentinel-2 satellite sensors); soil hydraulic analyses; geostatistical models; and SM root-zone modelling 2D GIS mapping). The reference evapotranspiration was computed based on the F.A.O. Penman–Monteith method. The crop (ETc) and actual (ETa) evapotranspiration were computed using crop coefficients obtained from the remote-sensing NDVI vegetation index (R2 = 0.9327). A daily soil–water–crop–atmosphere (SWCA) balance model and a depletion model were developed using sensor data (climatic parameters’ sensors, as well as soil and satellite sensors) measurements. The two-way ANOVA statistical analysis results revealed that irrigation (IR1 = best) and fertilization treatments (Ft2 = best) significantly affected the cotton yield, the plant height, the plant stem, the boll weight, the above-ground dry matter, nitrogen and fertilizer efficiency, and WUE. VDI, if applied wisely during critical growth stages, could result in a substantial improvement in the yield (up to +28.664%) and water savings (up to 24.941%), thus raising water productivity (+35.715% up to 42.659%), WUE (from farmers’ 0.421–0.496 kg·m−3 up to a VDI of 0.601–0.685 kg·m−3), nitrogen efficiency (+16.888% up to +22.859%), and N-P-K fertilizer productivity (from farmers’ 16.754–23.769 up to a VDI of 20.583–27.957).

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