The role of instructional quality in explaining socioeconomic disparities in mathematics achievement: a multilevel structural equation modeling of Swedish TIMSS 2019 data

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Abstract
Background: Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important predictor of achievement, yet the classroom processes through which it may be associated remain debated. This study examines whether student-perceived instructional clarity and classroom management are associated with eighth-grade mathematics achievement in Sweden, and whether these dimensions of instructional quality are associated with SES differences in achievement at the student and classroom levels. Methods: Using nationally representative TIMSS 2019 data (Grade 8), we estimated two-level structural equation models in Mplus, incorporating student weights and the plausible-value methodology. We modeled student-perceived instructional clarity and classroom management as latent constructs at within- and between-classroom levels. We tested the direct associations with achievement, indirect pathways between SES and achievement, and a random-slope model for the within-class SES effect, followed by cross-level interactions. Results: Instructional clarity was positively related to achievement within classrooms, whereas classroom management showed a stronger association between classrooms; SES remained a robust predictor at both levels. Evidence for indirect associations was limited, as within-class indirect effects via clarity or management were negligible. A small between-class indirect path via classroom management was marginal only. The random-slope variance for the SES-achievement relationship was not statistically significant, indicating little cross-class heterogeneity. Accordingly, cross-level interactions with class-mean SES, clarity, and management were also nonsignificant. Class-mean SES and classroom management showed positive associations with mean achievement at the between-level. Conclusions: Findings suggest instructional clarity was more strongly associated with individual-level achievement, while classroom management was more strongly associated with classroom-level achievement. However, these features were not strongly associated with SES-related disparities. Higher levels of instructional quality with higher overall achievement, but closing SES gaps requires combining classroom improvement with broader, equity-oriented policies.

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