Streptomyces clavuligerus HlmI Is an Intramolecular Disulfide-Forming Dithiol Oxidase in Holomycin Biosynthesis

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Abstract
Holomycin and related dithiolopyrrolone antibiotics display broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities and contain a unique 5,5-bicyclic ring structure with an N-acylated aminopyrrolone fused to a cyclic ene–disulfide. Here we show that the intramolecular disulfide bridge is constructed from the acyclic ene–dithiol at a late stage in the pathway by a thioredoxin oxidoreductase-like enzyme HlmI from the holomycin producer Streptomyces clavuligerus. Recombinant HlmI was purified from E. coli with bound flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and converts reduced holomycin to holomycin utilizing O2 as cosubstrate. As a dithiol oxidase, HlmI is functionally homologous to GliT and DepH, which perform a similar dithiol to disulfide oxidation in the biosynthesis of fungal natural product gliotoxin and epigenetic regulator compound FK228, respectively. Deletion of the hlmI gene in the wild type S. clavuligerus and in a holomycin-overproducing mutant resulted in decreased level of holomycin production and increased sensitivity toward holomycin, suggesting a self-protection role of HlmI in the holomycin biosynthetic pathway. HlmI belongs to a new clade of uncharacterized thioredoxin oxidoreductase-like enzymes, distinctive from the GliT-like enzymes and the DepH-like enzymes, and represents a third example of oxidoreductases that catalyzes disulfide formation in the biosynthesis of small molecules.

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