Cram Schools and English Language Education in East Asian Contexts

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Abstract
Cram schools appear frequently in East Asian news media, yet are less explored and theorized in the TESOL literature. Cram schools, which in this study imply any tutoring education, are making huge impacts, both positive and negative, on students and society in East Asian countries. English cram schools in East Asian contexts can be classified according to their purposes, learners' ages, program regularity, functions of the institutions, and the medium of teaching and learning. While they have various negatives—adding education costs, intensifying the “English divide” as a form of social inequality, putting extra study burdens on students, sometimes enforcing rote learning, and being outside central control in terms of growth and management—they also have positives: service‐mindedness, customized care, efficiency, reduction of barriers, and efficient use of technology. There is a need for more empirical research on cram schools and English education.

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