Engineering Emulgel-Based Inks for 3D Printing Scaffolds with Enhanced Porosity for Supporting Cell Proliferation

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Abstract
Highly porous hydrogel scaffolds are critical for advancing three-dimensional printing in tissue engineering. Interconnected porous networks facilitate nutrient diffusion, waste removal, and cell infiltration, necessary processes for tissue regeneration. Emulgel-based inks are developed using oil-in-water Pickering emulsions, in which mineral oil serves as a sacrificial porogen within a carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)/Laponite matrix, with Laponite providing stabilization of the emulsion. Nine formulations are prepared by varying CMC (0.5–1.0 wt %) and mineral oil (10–20 wt %) concentrations at fixed Laponite (2 wt %). Rheological characterization confirms pronounced shear thinning, appropriate viscoelasticity, and rapid thixotropic recovery, establishing suitability for extrusion-based printing. Post-printing lyophilization and oil removal produce interconnected, homogeneous pore networks, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Hydrated scaffolds exhibit compressive moduli of 20–30 kPa, overlapping with native soft tissue stiffness. Swelling and degradation analyses confirm structural stability under physiological conditions. Biological assessment using human dental pulp mesenchymal stromal cells (DPMSCs) identifies the 1.0 wt % CMC, Laponite, and 10 wt % oil formulation as optimal, supporting sustained cell proliferation over 28 days following lyophilization and pre-conditioning. This platform provides fabrication advances in 3D-printed hydrogel scaffolds, enhanced porosity, and mechanical properties for soft-tissue engineering and drug delivery applications.
Funding Information
  • Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior (CAPES-Brazil) (88882.435260/2019-01)
  • Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior (CAPES-Brazil) (88887.716360/2022-00)
  • S?o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (2017/23776-5)
  • S?o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (2023/08764-1)
  • S?o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (2024/05735-3)
  • FINEP (01.18.0027.00)
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (CNPq-Brazil) (141474/2021-1)
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (CNPq-Brazil) (157769/2019-4)
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (CNPq-Brazil) (306846/2022-5)
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (CNPq-Brazil) (314724/2021-4)
  • Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (CNPq-Brazil) (403259/2024-0)

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