Ferrate(VI) as a Greener Alternative to Conventional Advanced Oxidation Processes for Acetaminophen Removal in Wastewater

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Abstract
Ferrate(VI) has increasingly been proposed as an environmentally friendly oxidant due to its high reactivity and the relatively low toxicity of its by-products. However, its performance in degrading emerging pollutants (EPs) has not been systematically compared with conventional systems. This study presents a novel comparative assessment of three oxidation systems for the degradation of acetaminophen (APAP): (i) Fe0-activated hydrogen peroxide (HP), (ii) Fe0-activated persulfate (PS), and (iii) a commercial ferrate(VI)-based product, Envifer® (Fe(VI)). Optimal conditions were determined based on degradation kinetics, pH dependence, and oxidant stability. Oxidant systems were then evaluated in realistic matrices, including tap water and synthetic wastewater. When UP water was used, the HP/Fe0 system achieved the highest APAP mineralization (i.e., 66%) with 1 mM of oxidant dosage, and PS/Fe0 was shown to be effective without pH adjustment. Nevertheless, these heterogeneous systems presented serious limitations when applied in more complex matrices. Fe(VI) instead achieved a rapid APAP degradation even in the presence of carbonates and natural organic matter without pH adjustment. This represents a key advantage over HP- and PS-based systems, enabling simpler implementation and lower chemical demand. Furthermore, Fe(VI) resulted in lower dissolved iron concentrations, potentially enabling less intensive post-treatment requirements. Overall, the results identify Fe(VI)-based AOPs as a potentially green alternative to conventional systems for wastewater treatment.

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