Associations of Prenatal Socioeconomic Status and Childhood Working Memory: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

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Abstract
Objective: To determine if prenatal socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with childhood working memory (WM), we constructed a more precise, integrative measure of WM using variables from multiple tasks that may provide a more representative measure of WM. Study Design: We used data from a prospective birth cohort study in Mexico City, Mexico, with N = 515 children aged 6–9 years. Prenatal SES was measured using the Mexican Association of Marketing Research and Public Opinion Agencies (AMAI) index. We created a latent variable for nonverbal working memory using multiple tasks (Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery spatial working memory, operant chamber Delayed Match to Sample and Incremental Repeated Acquisition). Structural equation models were used to assess associations between prenatal SES and nonverbal working memory, adjusting for child demographics (e.g., age and sex), prenatal exposures (e.g., exposures to lead, arsenic, and secondhand smoke), and family (current SES, maternal IQ) variables. Results: Children had a mean age of 6.6 years [SD 0.6], and 50.5% were boys. Using confirmatory factor analysis, we constructed a latent variable of nonverbal working memory, which was measurement invariant across child sex. Prenatal SES was associated with childhood nonverbal working memory (standardized factor loading = 0.17; p = 0.004). These associations were modified by child sex. Higher prenatal SES was significantly associated with higher childhood WM in females (standardized factor loading = 0.26; p = 0.002), but not in males. Conclusions: Prenatal socioeconomic status is a predictor of childhood working memory, but it may be a stronger predictor for girls compared with for boys.
Funding Information
  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (K25HD104918, R03ES033374, UC2ES026555, R01ES013744, R24ES028522, R01ES014930, P30ES023515, P30AG059303, P30AG028741, RF1NS115268)
  • National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) (K25HD104918, R03ES033374, UC2ES026555, R01ES013744, R24ES028522, R01ES014930, P30ES023515, P30AG059303, P30AG028741, RF1NS115268)
  • National Institute on Aging (NIA) (K25HD104918, R03ES033374, UC2ES026555, R01ES013744, R24ES028522, R01ES014930, P30ES023515, P30AG059303, P30AG028741, RF1NS115268)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (K25HD104918, R03ES033374, UC2ES026555, R01ES013744, R24ES028522, R01ES014930, P30ES023515, P30AG059303, P30AG028741, RF1NS115268)

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