Towards Sustainable Flocculation: Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

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Abstract
Flocculation is a physicochemical process with critical relevance to industrial and environmental operations, including potable water production, wastewater remediation, mineral processing, papermaking, and food manufacturing. The efficiency of flocculation is determined by the chemical nature, molecular structure, and physicochemical interactions of flocculants with suspended colloidal matter. Conventional synthetic polyacrylamides, available in nonionic, anionic, and cationic forms, function predominantly via electrostatic neutralization, polymer chain bridging, and sweep flocculation induced by precipitated hydroxides. Their high molecular weight, customizable charge density, and cost-effectiveness have consolidated their industrial dominance. However, the inherent resistance of polyacrylamides to biodegradation in combination with its monomer’s toxicity and increasing regulatory pressure have accelerated research toward sustainable alternative materials. Recent developments include functionalized natural polysaccharides (e.g., chitosan, cellulose derivatives, starch esters), bio-based copolymers, and nanoengineered hybrid systems incorporating inorganic domains to enhance colloid destabilization and sedimentation kinetics. This review systematically examines the physicochemical principles underlying flocculation, evaluates the performance parameters and limitations of polyacrylamides, and highlight emerging strategies for sustainable flocculant design. Prospects for the next generation of flocculation technologies are discussed in the context of mechanistic optimization, ecological safety, and compliance with evolving environmental regulations.
Funding Information
  • Knowledge Foundation (Grant 20240105)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (PhD grant 2020.07638)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (CEECIND/01014/2018)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (2021.00399.CEECIND)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UIDB/05183/2020)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UIDP/05183/2020)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (LA/P/0121/2020)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UID/50017/2025)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (LA/P/0094/2020)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UIDB/00102/2020)
  • Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UIDP/00102/2020)

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