Begonia: a versatile ornamental genus—diversity, breeding advances, and future prospects

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Abstract
Begonia L. is one of the largest and most horticulturally diverse genera of flowering plants, with more than 2,200 accepted species and exceptional variation in growth habits, foliage morphology, flower forms, ecological specializations, and reproductive biology. This review synthesizes current knowledge of Begonia taxonomy, biogeography, germplasm resources, cytogenetics, domestication, breeding history, molecular markers, and biotechnology, emphasizing their relevance to ornamental improvement. Major commercial groups, including wax, cane-like, rhizomatous, Rex Cultorum, tuberous, Lorraine, Elatior, and modern interspecific bedding begonias, were developed largely through interspecific or intersectional hybridization followed by recurrent phenotypic selection. Although these groups exhibit substantial ornamental diversity, they were derived from a relatively small number of founder species, leaving much of the wild germplasm underutilized. Cytogenetic studies reveal extensive variation in chromosome numbers, repeated polyploidization, and the formation of 2n gametes through first division restitution, all of which have direct implications for wide hybridization and polyploid breeding. Tissue culture, mutation breeding, chromosome doubling, and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation have been established in selected species and hybrids, while chromosome-scale genome assemblies, transcriptome analyses, and metabolomic datasets are beginning to support candidate-gene discovery. However, practical application remains constrained by genotype-dependent regeneration, a lack of breeder-ready markers, few mapping populations, and the absence of stable gene-edited Begonia lines. Future progress will depend on integrated breeding platforms that combine conserved wild germplasm, cytogenetic screening, genomic resources, genome-editing tools, tissue-culture systems, and multi-environment evaluation to broaden the genetic base and accelerate cultivar development.

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