Assessing the Accuracy of GNSS Velocities: A Multi-Software Comparison of Differential and PPP-AR Solutions

Precise Point Positioning with Ambiguity Resolution (PPP-AR) has emerged as a viable alternative to traditional network-based GNSS processing for crustal deformation monitoring and velocity field estimation. It provides high-precision daily coordinate solutions with simpler logistics, particularly for densifying velocity fields in regions lacking dense GNSS infrastructure. This study evaluates whether long-term velocity estimates derived from independent operational GNSS processing chains remain mutually consistent for regional geodynamic applications. We applied four processing strategies to 79 high-quality continuous GNSS stations in Southern Italy over the period 2017–2024: a Bernese double-difference network solution used as reference, Bernese PPP-AR, PRIDE PPP-AR, and the Nevada Geodetic Laboratory (NGL) PPP-AR solution derived from the GipsyX processing pipeline. The daily coordinate series preserve the realistic differences among the processing chains, while the subsequent velocity estimation was performed with a common HectorP workflow. A Bland–Altman screening identified 10 outlier stations, and the final inter-comparison is based on the remaining 69 stations (87.3% of the network). The results show that horizontal velocity components derived from PPP-AR agree with the network solution at sub-millimeter-per-year levels, with correlation coefficients exceeding 0.95, indicating strong coherence between the PPP-AR and network-derived horizontal velocity fields. In addition, vertical velocity estimates exhibit processing-strategy-dependent differences on the order of 1 mm ${\mathrm{yr}}^{-1}$ among PPP-AR solutions and relative to the network, indicating that careful interpretation is required for vertical rates. This study presents a systematic comparison of operational PPP-AR velocity solutions and a double-difference reference solution, demonstrating that complete processing-chain differences can introduce vertical effects comparable to those between PPP-AR and network processing. The findings support the practical maturity of PPP-AR for horizontal velocity field densification, while showing that vertical rates remain sensitive to processing strategy at the ∼1 mm ${\mathrm{yr}}^{-1}$ level.