Ultrasound applications in civil and environmental engineering

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Abstract
Ultrasound is an acoustic technology that uses the properties and concepts of sound waves to transmit and receive information through a medium in the gas, liquid, or solid phase. It has been used for several decades as either destructive or nondestructive technology. In this manuscript, an attempt is made to describe piezoelectric transducers, which are one of the most used types of transducers across different industries. Multiple new industrial applications that involve this technology are now available. This manuscript provides an overview of the following aspects of ultrasonic technology: (i) components or transducer types; (ii) wave propagation and associated phenomena; (iii) types of measuring techniques; and (iv) various mechanisms. The main purpose of this manuscript is to provide the reader with information about low-intensity (mostly nondestructive applications or focused destructive applications) or high-intensity (i.e., power, energy, or amplitude and destructive applications) piezoelectric ultrasound applications. This is further divided into multiple applications, based on low (large-scale applications) and high (small-scale applications) frequencies, under either high or low ultrasound intensities. Finally, this manuscript addresses the use of piezoelectric ultrasound in areas such as civil and environmental industries; by discussing all of these in one document, providing a valuable resource for the reader. Though an attempt was made to include multiple ranges of values of intensities and frequencies of piezoelectric transducers that are used for various applications, a full spectrum was not included for the sake of concision.