Toward continuous monitoring systems: emerging trends of on-chip sensors in organ-on-a-chip

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Abstract
The emergence of Organ-on-a-Chip (OoC) has significantly advanced biomedical research mainly on aspects of disease modeling and drug research. The need for real-time and continuous monitoring of the OoCs has been driving the development of integrated sensors on-chip. To meet these needs across different scales, from microscopic to macroscopic, primary sensing strategies for in situ sensor integration typically include electrical, optical, and mechanical approaches. This review focuses on the detection methodologies driven by these requirements and analyzes the core sensing elements involved. It further explores current innovative pathways for achieving in situ sensing integration and discusses the future prospects brought about by the development of models in OoC and sensing technologies.

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