Cost-Effectiveness of Distributing Naloxone to Heroin Users for Lay Overdose Reversal

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Abstract
Opioid overdose is a leading cause of accidental death in the United States. To estimate the cost-effectiveness of distributing naloxone, an opioid antagonist, to heroin users for use at witnessed overdoses. Integrated Markov and decision analytic model using deterministic and probabilistic analyses and incorporating recurrent overdoses and a secondary analysis assuming heroin users are a net cost to society. Published literature calibrated to epidemiologic data. Hypothetical 21-year-old novice U.S. heroin user and more experienced users with scenario analyses. Lifetime. Societal. Naloxone distribution for lay administration. Overdose deaths prevented and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). In the probabilistic analysis, 6% of overdose deaths were prevented with naloxone distribution; 1 death was prevented for every 227 naloxone kits distributed (95% CI, 71 to 716). Naloxone distribution increased costs by $53 (CI, $3 to $156) and quality-adjusted life-years by 0.119 (CI, 0.017 to 0.378) for an ICER of $438 (CI, $48 to $1706). Naloxone distribution was cost-effective in all deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity and scenario analyses, and it was cost-saving if it resulted in fewer overdoses or emergency medical service activations. In a "worst-case scenario" where overdose was rarely witnessed and naloxone was rarely used, minimally effective, and expensive, the ICER was $14 000. If national drug-related expenditures were applied to heroin users, the ICER was $2429. Limited sources of controlled data resulted in wide CIs. Naloxone distribution to heroin users is likely to reduce overdose deaths and is cost-effective, even under markedly conservative assumptions. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

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