Jeanne Sibiude

Introduction: The use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in pregnancy to prevent vertical HIV transmission has been one of the most successful public health programs in the last decade. As a result, an unprecedented number of women are taking ART at conception and during pregnancy. Given few randomized studies evaluating safety of different ART regimens in pregnancy, ongoing drug safety surveillance is critical. Areas covered: This review aims to provide a rationale for ART drug safety surveillance, describe changing patterns of ART use and summarize current surveillance efforts in both low-resource and high-resource settings. Additionally, biostatistical approaches to and challenges in analysis of observational surveillance data are discussed. Expert opinion: The global landscape of ART use in pregnancy is rapidly increasing and evolving. Any increase in adverse effects of in-utero exposure to ART has the potential to reduce the impact of improvements in infant morbidity and mortality gained from decreased vertical HIV transmission. ART drug safety surveillance should therefore be a critical piece of programs to prevent mother to child transmission in both high- and low-resource settings. Current surveillance efforts could be strengthened with long-term follow-up of exposed children, pooling of data across cohorts and standardized approaches to analysis.

Background. Antiretroviral (ARV) regimens during pregnancy are highly effective in preventing mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Congenital heart defects (CHDs) and anomalies in cardiac function have been reported in zidovudine (ZDV)–exposed uninfected children. We explored these associations in a large observational cohort and a randomized clinical trial. Methods. Since 1986, the French Perinatal Cohort prospectively enrolled all HIV-infected women in 90 centers and collected follow-up on their children through 2 years of age. All CHDs were reviewed by a specialist blinded to exposures. Additionally, in a randomized trial (PRIMEVA ANRS 135) of 2 ARV regimens during pregnancy, 1 of which was without nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, infants had a specific follow-up including echocardiography at 1 month and 12 months. Results. Among 12 888 children included, ZDV exposure in the first trimester was significantly associated with CHD (1.5% vs 0.7%; adjusted odds ratio, 2.2 [95% confidence interval, 1.3–3.7]; P < .001). This association was significant for ventricular septal defects (1.1% vs 0.6%; P = .001) and other CHDs (0.31% vs 0.11%; P = .02). In the randomized trial, among 50 infants, girls (but not boys) exposed in utero to ZDV/lamivudine/ritonavir-boosted lopinavir (LPV/r) had a higher left ventricular shortening fraction at 1 month (40% vs 36%; P = .008), and an increased posterior wall thickness at 1 year (5.4 mm vs 4.4 mm; P = .01) than the LPV/r group. Conclusions. This study confirms a specific association between in utero exposure to ZDV and CHDs, and a long-lasting postnatal myocardial remodeling in girls. A potential common mechanism, including the involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction, must be explored, and long-term consequences on cardiac function warrant specific attention. Clinical Trials Registration. NCT00424814.

(Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013;209(4):335.e1–335.e12)

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has major benefits during pregnancy, both for maternal health and to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Safety issues, including teratogenic risk, need to be evaluated. We estimated the prevalence of birth defects in children born to HIV-infected women receiving ART during pregnancy, and assessed the independent association of birth defects with each antiretroviral (ARV) drug used. The French Perinatal Cohort prospectively enrolls HIV-infected women delivering in 90 centers throughout France. Children are followed by pediatricians until 2 y of age according to national guidelines. We included 13,124 live births between 1994 and 2010, among which, 42% (n = 5,388) were exposed to ART in the first trimester of pregnancy. Birth defects were studied using both European Surveillance of Congenital Anomalies (EUROCAT) and Metropolitan Atlanta Congenital Defects Program (MACDP) classifications; associations with ART were evaluated using univariate and multivariate logistic regressions. Correction for multiple comparisons was not performed because the analyses were based on hypotheses emanating from previous findings in the literature and the robustness of the findings of the current study. The prevalence of birth defects was 4.4% (95% CI 4.0%–4.7%), according to the EUROCAT classification. In multivariate analysis adjusting for other ARV drugs, maternal age, geographical origin, intravenous drug use, and type of maternity center, a significant association was found between exposure to zidovudine in the first trimester and congenital heart defects: 2.3% (74/3,267), adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.2 (95% CI 1.3–3.7), p = 0.003, absolute risk difference attributed to zidovudine +1.2% (95% CI +0.5; +1.9%). Didanosine and indinavir were associated with head and neck defects, respectively: 0.5%, AOR = 3.4 (95% CI 1.1–10.4), p = 0.04; 0.9%, AOR = 3.8 (95% CI 1.1–13.8), p = 0.04. We found a significant association between efavirenz and neurological defects (n = 4) using the MACDP classification: AOR = 3.0 (95% CI 1.1–8.5), p = 0.04, absolute risk +0.7% (95% CI +0.07%; +1.3%). But the association was not significant using the less inclusive EUROCAT classification: AOR = 2.1 (95% CI 0.7–5.9), p = 0.16. No association was found between birth defects and lopinavir or ritonavir with a power >85% for an odds ratio of 1.5, nor for nevirapine, tenofovir, stavudine, or abacavir with a power >70%. Limitations of the present study were the absence of data on termination of pregnancy, stillbirths, tobacco and alcohol intake, and concomitant medication. We found a specific association between in utero exposure to zidovudine and heart defects; the mechanisms need to be elucidated. The association between efavirenz and neurological defects must be interpreted with caution. For the other drugs not associated with birth defects, the results were reassuring. Finally, whatever the impact that some ARV drugs may have on birth defects, it is surpassed by the major role of ART in the successful prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary AIDS and HIV infection are commonly treated with antiretroviral therapy (ART), a combination of individual drugs that work together to prevent the replication of the virus and further spread of the infection. Starting in the 1990s, studies have shown that ART of HIV-infected women can substantially reduce transmission of the virus to the child during pregnancy and birth. Based on these results, ART was subsequently recommended for pregnant women. Since 2004, ART has been standard therapy for pregnant women with HIV/AIDS in high-income countries, and it is now recommended for all HIV-infected women worldwide. Several different antiviral drug combinations have been shown to be effective and are used to prevent mother-to-infant transmission. However, as with any other drugs taken during pregnancy, there is concern that ART can harm the developing fetus. Several previous studies have assessed the risk that ART taken by a pregnant woman might pose to her developing fetus, but the results have been inconsistent. Animal studies suggested an elevated risk for some drugs but not others. While some clinical studies have reported increases in birth defects in children born to mothers on ART, others have shown no such increase. The discrepancy may be due to differences between the populations included in the studies and the different methods used to diagnose birth defects. Additional large studies are therefore necessary to obtain more and better evidence on the potential harm of individual anti-HIV drugs to children exposed during pregnancy. So in this study, the authors conducted a large cohort study in France to assess the relationship between different antiretroviral drugs and specific birth defects. The researchers used a large national health database known as the French Perinatal Cohort that contains information on HIV-infected mothers who delivered infants in 90 centers throughout France. Pediatricians follow all children, whatever their HIV status, to two years of age, and health statistics are collected according to national health-care guidelines. Analyzing the records, the researchers estimated the rate at which birth defects occurred in children exposed to antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. The researchers included 13,124 children who were born alive between 1994 and 2010 and had been exposed to ART during pregnancy. Children exposed in the first trimester of pregnancy, and those exposed during the second or third trimester, were compared to a control group (children not exposed to the drug during the whole pregnancy). Using two birth defect classification systems (EUROCAT and MACDP—MACDP collects more details on disease classification than EUROCAT), the researchers sought to detect a link between the occurrence of birth defects and exposure to individual antiretroviral drugs. They found a small increase in the risk for heart defects in children with exposure to zidovudine. They also found an association between efavirenz exposure and a small increase in neurological defects, but only when using the MACDP classification system. The authors found no association between other antiretroviral drugs, including nevirapine (acting similar to efavirenz); tenofovir, stavudine, and abacavir (all three acting similar to zidovudine); and lopinavir and ritonavir (proteinase inhibitors) and any type of birth defect. These findings show that, overall, the risks of birth defects in children exposed to antiretroviral drugs in utero are small when considering the clear benefit of preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV. However, where there are safe and effective alternatives, it might be appropriate to avoid use by pregnant women of those drugs that are associated with elevated risks of birth defects. Worldwide, a large number of children are exposed to zidovudine in utero, and these results suggest (though cannot prove) that these children may be at a slightly higher risk of heart defects. Current World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission no longer recommend zidovudine for first-line therapy. The implications of the higher rate of neurological birth defects observed in infants exposed to efavirenz in the first trimester are less clear. The EUROCAT classification excludes minor neurological abnormalities without serious medical consequences, and so the WHO guidelines that stress the importance of careful clinical follow-up of children with exposure to efavirenz seem adequate, based on the findings of this study. The study is limited by the lack of data on the use of additional medication and alcohol and tobacco use, which could have a direct impact on fetal development, and by the absence of data on birth defects and antiretroviral drug exposure from low-income countries. However, the findings of this study overall are reassuring and suggest that apart from zidovudine and possibly efavirenz, other antiretroviral drugs are not associated with birth defects, and their use during pregnancy does not pose a risk to the infant. Please access these websites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001635.

The circulating concentration of PlGF is reported to be lower in patients experiencing preeclampsia and patients delivering a small for gestational age (SGA) neonate. To evaluate the predictive value of circulating PlGF for preeclampsia and adverse outcome in patients with suspected preeclampsia or intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). A double blind prospective study. We enrolled 96 women for suspected preeclampsia or IUGR, and measured plasma levels of PlGF (Triage®) at enrolment. We defined adverse outcome as severe preeclampsia, SGA neonate (th centile) or elective delivery for maternal or fetal complication. Severe adverse outcome was studied among patients included rd centile) or elective delivery th centile experienced a severe adverse outcome within 15 days (5%). Among women with suspected preeclampsia or IUGR, PlGF helps identify women who will experience an adverse outcome and those who will not within a time period of 15 days.

(See the Editorial Commentary by Thorne and Townsend, on pages 1361–3 .) Background. The association between combination antiretroviral (cARV) therapy use by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected women during pregnancy and risk of prematurity is still controversial. We explored this question, focusing on the initiation of ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors (PIs) during pregnancy, which is now standard care. Methods. Trends in prematurity (Results. Prematurity increased from 9.2% during 1990–1993 (no therapy) and 9.6% during 1994–1996 (mostly zidovudine monotherapy) to 12.4% during 1997–1999 (dual-nucleoside analog therapy) and 14.3% during 2005–2009 (routine cARV therapy; P < .01). Prematurity was associated with cARV therapy, compared with zidovudine monotherapy, with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.69 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.38–2.07; P < .01) when accounting for maternal age, intravenous drug use, geographic origin, and CD4 cell count. During 2005–2009, the prematurity rate was higher with boosted than with nonboosted PI therapy started during pregnancy (14.4% vs 9.1% [P = .05]; adjusted hazard ratio, 2.03 [95% CI, 1.06–3.89; P = .03] in multivariate analysis). The difference concerned mainly induced preterm delivery for maternal or fetal indications (5.6% vs 1.6%; P = .02), Conclusions. The prematurity rate among HIV-infected pregnant women was twice that in the general population in France; this was not entirely explained by sociodemographic characteristics. Prematurity was independently associated with cARV therapy and, particularly, with the initiation of ritonavir-boosted PI therapy during pregnancy.