Emmanuel Torquebiau

Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) are critical biodiversity areas for the conservation and sustainable use of biological and cultural resources while promoting regional peace, cooperation, and socio-economic development. Sustainable management of TFCAs is dependent on the availability of an eco-agriculture framework that promotes integrated management of conservation mosaics in terms of food production, environmental protection or the conservation of natural resources, and improved human livelihoods. As a developmental framework, eco-agriculture is significantly influenced by existing legal and governance structures at all levels; this study assessed the impact of existing legal and governance frameworks on eco-agriculture implementation in the Lubombo TFCA that cuts across the borders between Mozambique, Eswatini, and South Africa. The assessment used a mixed research method, including a document review, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. Although the three countries have no eco-agriculture policies, biodiversity practices are directly or indirectly affected by some policies related to environmental protection, agriculture improvement, and rural development. The assessment found that South Africa has the most comprehensive policies related to eco-agriculture; Mozambican policies mainly focus on equity and involvement of disadvantaged social groups, while Eswatini is conspicuous for explicitly making it the responsibility of each citizen to protect and safeguard the environment. The protection of conservation areas is critical to preserving natural habitats and ensuring the continued provision of ecosystem services. The lack of transboundary governance structures results in the Lubombo TFCA existing as a treaty on paper, as there are no clear processes for transboundary cooperation and collaboration.

Cahiers Agricultures est une revue scientifique sur les agricultures du monde, leurs évolutions et leur place dans les sociétés

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach to help agricultural systems worldwide, concurrently addressing three challenge areas: increased adaptation to climate change, mitigation of climate change, and ensuring global food security – through innovative policies, practices, and financing. It involves a set of objectives and multiple transformative transitions for which there are newly identified knowledge gaps. We address these questions raised by CSA within three areas: conceptualization, implementation, and implications for policy and decision-makers. We also draw up scenarios on the future of the CSA concept in relation to the 4 per 1000 Initiative (Soils for Food Security and Climate) launched at UNFCCC 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21). Our analysis shows that there is still a need for further interdisciplinary research on the theoretical foundation of the CSA concept and on the necessary transformations of agriculture and land use systems. Contrasting views about implementation indicate that CSA focus on the “triple win” (adaptation, mitigation, food security) needs to be assessed in terms of science-based practices. CSA policy tools need to incorporate an integrated set of measures supported by reliable metrics. Environmental and social safeguards are necessary to make sure that CSA initiatives conform to the principles of sustainability, both at the agriculture and food system levels.

L'agriculture intelligente face au climat (climate-smart agriculture – CSA) a comme objectifs d'être adaptée au changement climatique et de l'atténuer, tout en contribuant de manière durable à la sécurité alimentaire. Né en 2010 à l'initiative de la FAO, le concept a fait école et se décline désormais en diverses pratiques qui prennent en compte ces objectifs de manière différente. Les pratiques agroécologiques de couverture permanente du sol, par des arbres ou des cultures, sont parmi les plus courantes. Mais la CSA prétend aussi être une approche plus large permettant de répondre aux enjeux du changement climatique par des politiques publiques et des financements innovants. Défini par des objectifs et non pas par les moyens d'atteindre ces objectifs, le concept de CSA pose aussi question, notamment sur la possibilité d'assurer simultanément ses trois objectifs et sur le risque d'encourager un productivisme déguisé qui ne respecterait ni l'environnement ni les agriculteurs. L'initiative « 4 ‰, les sols pour la sécurité alimentaire et le climat » reprend les objectifs de la CSA en insistant sur l'atténuation du changement climatique par l'augmentation de la teneur en carbone du sol. Tout en étant un concept qui demande encore à faire ses preuves, la CSA est une approche de l'agriculture originale et compatible avec les enjeux du changement climatique. The objectives of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) are to be adapted to climate change and mitigate it, while sustainably contributing to food security. The concept emerged in 2010 at FAO and has now become popular. Different CSA practices can be found today and integrate its objectives differently. Agroecological practices aiming for a permanent soil cover, either with trees or crops, are among the most common CSA practices. CSA is also a wider approach allowing taking into account the challenge of climate change with innovative public policies and financing. Because it is defined by its objectives and not by the means to reach those objectives, the concept of CSA has also been questioned, especially regarding the possibility to reach its three objectives simultaneously and because of the risks to promote disguised productivism that would not respect the environment or the farmers. The 4‰ initiative « Soils for Food Security and Climate » takes up the objectives of CSA and emphasizes the mitigation of climate change by increasing the carbon content of the soil. While the CSA concept has yet to prove itself, it is an innovative, climate-friendly approach to agriculture that is compatible with the challenges of climate change.

L’agriculture, l’activité humaine probablement la plus dépendante du climat, est à la fois victime et responsable du changement climatique mais elle peut aussi être une solution à la crise du changement climatique. C’est dans les pays en développement, particulièrement vulnérables, que les effets du changement climatique seront les plus violents. L’agriculture émet des gaz à effet de serre, mais il est possible de diminuer ces émissions par des pratiques agro écologiques favorisant l’augmentation de la matière organique du sol. Il est également possible, grâce à ces pratiques, d’augmenter la capture de carbone atmosphérique en fixant du carbone dans le sol et ainsi contribuer à l’atténuation du changement climatique, tout en améliorant les propriétés du sol, ce qui permet simultanément d’améliorer l’adaptation de l’agriculture au changement climatique. Une augmentation de la teneur en carbone de tous les sols du monde de 4 ‰ par an permettrait de compenser toutes les émissions de gaz à effet de serre d’origine anthropique. L’initiative internationale d’origine française « 4 ‰, Les Sols pour la Sécurité Alimentaire et le Climat » se donne pour objectif de mettre en œuvre des projets permettant de montrer qu’il est possible d’augmenter la teneur en carbone du sol dans ces proportions et de répondre aux questions de recherche que cela pose, notamment en matière de mesure du taux de carbone dans le sol, de pratiques agronomiques pertinentes, du contexte socio-économique favorable à cette démarche et enfin du suivi dans le temps des changements induits. Agriculture is probably the most climate-dependent human activity and is both victim and responsible for climate change, while it can also be a solution to the climate change crisis. It is in developing countries, particularly in vulnerable ones, that the effects of climate change will be most violent. Agriculture emits greenhouse gases but it is possible to reduce these emissions by agroecological practices, favoring the increase of organic matter in the soil. It is also possible, through these practices, to increase atmospheric carbon capture by fixing carbon in the soil and thus contribute to mitigating climate change while improving soil properties, thereby simultaneously improving the adaptation of agriculture to climate change. An increase in carbon content of all the world's soils of 4‰ per year would offset all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. The French international initiative “4‰, Soils for Food Security and Climate” aims to implement projects to show that it is possible to increase the carbon content of the soil in these proportions and to answer the research questions that this poses, in particular as regards measurement of the carbon content in the soil, relevant agronomic practices, the enabling socioeconomic context to this approach and finally the monitoring over time of the induced changes.

Over the centuries, farmers from the countries bordering the Mediterranean have developed a variety of agricultural practices, providing a wide array of commodities that have made the Mediterranean diet world famous. However, climate change projections reveal that some of these practices are at risk because of the expected drier and hotter conditions coupled with soil and water constraints, as well as a higher fire frequency threat. Nevertheless, adapting to climate hazards has long been part of farming practice in this area. The growing of pulses or other drought-tolerant crops (olives, grapes, almonds, etc.), transhumance and the use of rangelands or tree fodder by livestock, as well as water harvesting techniques, are among some of the age-old solutions to erratic rainfall or hot summers. In this chapter, we highlight some of the challenges facing agriculture in the Mediterranean and provide a series of examples of how agricultural and livestock management can be better adapted to climate change.Reliable metrics are necessary to enable the impact of climate change to be assessed and targeted agricultural policies to be designed. Long-term environmental observatories are essential to improve land management in the context of global change. Modelling the projected effects of current climatic trends shows that regional agricultural import dependence will increase as the impacts of climate change become more severe. Small ruminants (sheep, goats) have a good adaptation potential and can play a food security net role under climate change with a view to responding to the local food demand that emerges with new life styles. Local small ruminant breeds are adapted to harsh environments but this unique genetic heritage is now endangered. Perennial forage grasses are an alternative to cereals due to lower input requirement, year-round soil cover and optimal use of water. Mediterranean fruit trees, although well adapted, face increases in temperature and soil salinity as well as decreases in water availability. They will require improvements such as selection of early flowering varieties (olive), assessment of best pollinating conditions (figs) and salt tolerant rootstock (citrus).

Over the centuries, farmers from the countries bordering the Mediterranean have developed a variety of agricultural practices, providing a wide array of commodities that have made the Mediterranean diet world famous. However, climate change projections reveal that some of these practices are at risk because of the expected drier and hotter conditions coupled with soil and water constraints, as well as a higher fire frequency threat. Nevertheless, adapting to climate hazards has long been part of farming practice in this area. The growing of pulses or other drought-tolerant crops (olives, grapes, almonds, etc.), transhumance and the use of rangelands or tree fodder by livestock, as well as water harvesting techniques, are among some of the age-old solutions to erratic rainfall or hot summers. In this chapter, we highlight some of the challenges facing agriculture in the Mediterranean and provide a series of examples of how agricultural and livestock management can be better adapted to climate change. Reliable metrics are necessary to enable the impact of climate change to be assessed and targeted agricultural policies to be designed. Long-term environmental observatories are essential to improve land management in the context of global change. Modelling the projected effects of current climatic trends shows that regional agricultural import dependence will increase as the impacts of climate change become more severe. Small ruminants (sheep, goats) have a good adaptation potential and can play a food security net role under climate change with a view to responding to the local food demand that emerges with new life styles. Local small ruminant breeds are adapted to harsh environments but this unique genetic heritage is now endangered. Perennial forage grasses are an alternative to cereals due to lower input requirement, year-round soil cover and optimal use of water. Mediterranean fruit trees, although well adapted, face increases in temperature and soil salinity as well as decreases in water availability. They will require improvements such as selection of early flowering varieties (olive), assessment of best pollinating conditions (figs) and salt tolerant rootstock (citrus).