Gordon J. Walker

This invited commentary provides a brief history of the social psychology of leisure and describes some research themes this approach should consider focusing on in the future. In both cases, emphasis is placed on cross-cultural/national leisure research.

We investigated the relationship between satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and/or relatedness and intrinsic motivation during leisure, and how this process was similar and/or different for British/Canadians (N = 259) and Hong Kong Chinese (N = 583) employees. Self-reported, cross-sectional data were collected in English and/or Cantonese and/or Pŭtōnghuà (Mandarin). A hierarchical regression analysis with British/Canadians found, in Step 1, age group negatively, and intrinsic motivation during paid work positively, correlated with intrinsic motivation during leisure. In Step 2, autonomy and competence satisfaction also positively correlated with intrinsic motivation during leisure. A hierarchical regression analysis with Hong Kong Chinese discovered, in Step 1, age group negatively, and intrinsic motivation during paid work positively, correlated with intrinsic motivation during leisure. In Step 2, autonomy and relatedness satisfaction also positively correlated with intrinsic motivation during leisure. These findings are discussed in regard to psychological and leisure theory and organizational and recreation practice.

Research on leisure and well-being in non-Western contexts is rare. Our study addresses this issue by investigating whether satisfaction of three basic psychological needs – autonomy, competence and/or relatedness – influences four types of affective well-being – high-arousal positive (HAP) affect, low-arousal positive (LAP) affect, high-arousal negative (HAN) affect and/or low-arousal negative (LAN) affect – within the leisure sphere. Telephone survey data were collected from 583 Hong Kong Chinese employees. Structural equation modelling indicated that (1) autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction were all significantly and positively correlated with HAP affect; (2) autonomy need satisfaction alone was significantly and positively related with LAP affect; and (3) autonomy need satisfaction alone was significantly and negatively associated with both LAN and HAN affects. Taken together, these results suggest that fulfilment of basic psychological needs, especially the need for autonomy, contributes to people’s overall affective well-being, within the leisure sphere. We discuss our findings in terms of two frameworks: basic psychological needs theory and the DRAMMA leisure model. We also explicate the practical implications of our study and provide future research recommendations.

We investigated whether satisfaction of employees’ basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and/or relatedness during leisure positively impacted their leisure domain satisfaction (LSAT) and, in turn, whether LSAT positively influenced their global life satisfaction (GLS). To better understand the above, we simultaneously examined these same relationships in the paid work domain. Useable data were collected from 395 adults employed at least 20 h per week. Structural equation modeling indicated that satisfaction of all three needs positively affected LSAT; with autonomy having the greatest effect. In comparison, although autonomy and relatedness need satisfaction positively affected work domain satisfaction (WSAT), competence’s effect was not significant. LSAT and WSAT positively, and age negatively, affected GLS; collectively explaining 48.6% of the total variance. Our findings largely support basic psychological needs theory in both the leisure and work domains and, furthermore, suggest these two contexts are equally effectual in regard to GLS.

This study investigated the impacts of nature-based leisure on the well-being of refugees in Canada. For this interpretive study we used semi-structured interviews and photo-elicitation to explore four refugees' experiences of a two-day winter camping experience in northern Alberta and how it might foster their well-being. Participants, from three African countries, and Iran, welcomed an opportunity to be away in a natural setting, to connect with others, to learn new activities, involve their families, and as a distraction from their daily lives. Refugees acknowledged the welcoming efforts of the social services and parks agencies in bolstering their confidence and well-being. Refugees' experiences underscored both the importance of access to nature-based leisure in mitigating stress, and host societies' attitudes toward newcomers in fostering their well-being. Our findings suggest that developing nature-based leisure opportunities for refugees may promote their well-being and sense of belonging.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether Canadian, Chinese, and Japanese university students' leisure satisfaction affected their subjective well-being (SWB) and, if so, how this process was similar and different cross-culturally/nationally. A series of stepwise multiple regressions indicated that, in general, satisfying leisure significantly and positively impacted SWB across all three cultures, but there were also differences between (a) Canada and both China and Japan in terms of aesthetic leisure satisfaction and (b) China and Japan in terms of psychological and physiological leisure satisfaction. Overall, our results suggest that while satisfying leisure significantly, positively, and substantively impacts SWB in both Western and East Asian cultural contexts, culture frequently influences which specific elements are pertinent. This cross-cultural/national study has important theoretical and practical implications for the currently Western-centric leisure literature and for the understanding of the different roles leisure plays in enhancing SWB across cultures, respectively.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether recent Chinese Canadian immigrants' (a) leisure satisfaction, happiness, and life satisfaction changed over a two-year period and (b) if leisure satisfaction affected their subjective well-being (SWB) over this same period. Participants completed an initial, trilingual telephone questionnaire (N = 220) and then were recontacted every six months for two years. Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that leisure satisfaction decreased over the two-year period, likely because of “leisure shock,” employment of a “withdrawn” strategy, or both. The results also showed that leisure satisfaction significantly and positively affected happiness and life satisfaction. Study limitations are identified, theoretical and practical implications are discussed, and future research recommendations are outlined.

This study reviewed non-Western and cross-cultural/national research published in five major leisure studies journals between 1990 and 2009. Of 1,891 total articles, 4.1% were non-Western and cross-cultural/national in nature. Overall: (a) Greater China was the most frequently studied culture/nation (24.4%); (b) survey research was the most often employed method (33.8%); (c) (b) perceived benefits, motivations, and leisure meanings was the most common theme (14.1%); and (d) although articles on this topic increased fivefold over 20 years, over 90% of recent leisure articles still focused, in whole or in part, on only slightly more than 10% of the world's population. Culture/nation, methodological, and thematic differences across the five journals are described and implications for leisure theory and practice are outlined.

This study examined relationships among ideal affect (i.e., how one prefers to feel) and actual affect during leisure and paid work. Data were collected from individuals who worked at least 20 hours per week. Findings revealed that: (a) low-arousal positive affect was preferred over high- arousal positive affect by female participants; (b) during leisure the low level of high-arousal negative affect male and female participants desired experiencing was realized; (c) the level of low-arousal positive affect male participants preferred experiencing was realized during their leisure; and (d) none of the levels of affect (i.e., high-arousal positive, low-arousal positive, high- arousal negative, low-arousal negative) participants desired experiencing were met during their paid work. Implications for leisure theory and practice are discussed.