Aniruddh D. Patel

Recent research suggests that musical training enhances the neural encoding of speech. Why would musical training have this effect? The OPERA hypothesis proposes an answer on the basis of the idea that musical training demands greater precision in certain aspects of auditory processing than does ordinary speech perception. This paper presents two assumptions underlying this idea, as well as two clarifications, and suggests directions for future research.

Human song exhibits great structural diversity, yet certain aspects of melodic shape (how pitch is patterned over time) are widespread. These include a predominance of arch-shaped and descending melodic contours in musical phrases, a tendency for phrase-final notes to be relatively long, and a bias toward small pitch movements between adjacent notes in a melody [Huron D (2006) Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA)]. What is the origin of these features? We hypothesize that they stem from motor constraints on song production (i.e., the energetic efficiency of their underlying motor actions) rather than being innately specified. One prediction of this hypothesis is that any animals subject to similar motor constraints on song will exhibit similar melodic shapes, no matter how distantly related those animals are to humans. Conversely, animals who do not share similar motor constraints on song will not exhibit convergent melodic shapes. Birds provide an ideal case for testing these predictions, because their peripheral mechanisms of song production have both notable similarities and differences from human vocal mechanisms [Riede T, Goller F (2010) Brain Lang 115:69–80]. We use these similarities and differences to make specific predictions about shared and distinct features of human and avian song structure and find that these predictions are confirmed by empirical analysis of diverse human and avian song samples.

This study tested the importance of F0 variation for tone language comprehension. The intelligibility of Mandarin sentences with natural F0 contours was compared to the intelligibility of monotone (flat-F0) sentences created via speech resynthesis. In a quiet background, flat-F0 speech was just as intelligible as natural speech (about 94% intelligible), highlighting the robustness of the language comprehension system. However, when babble noise was added (0 db SNR) flat-F0 speech was substantially less intelligible than natural speech (60% vs. 80% intelligible), indicating that F0 variation is very important for Mandarin sentence intelligibility in noise.

The recent discovery of spontaneous synchronization to music in a nonhuman animal (the sulphur‐crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita eleonora) raises several questions. How does this behavior differ from nonmusical synchronization abilities in other species, such as synchronized frog calls or firefly flashes? What significance does the behavior have for debates over the evolution of human music? What kinds of animals can synchronize to musical rhythms, and what are the key methodological issues for research in this area? This paper addresses these questions and proposes some refinements to the “vocal learning and rhythmic synchronization hypothesis.”

Background: Growing evidence for overlap in the syntactic processing of language and music in non‐brain‐damaged individuals leads to the question of whether aphasic individuals with grammatical comprehension problems in language also have problems processing structural relations in music. Aims: The current study sought to test musical syntactic processing in individuals with Broca's aphasia and grammatical comprehension deficits, using both explicit and implicit tasks. Methods & Procedures: Two experiments were conducted. In the first experiment 12 individuals with Broca's aphasia (and 14 matched controls) were tested for their sensitivity to grammatical and semantic relations in sentences, and for their sensitivity to musical syntactic (harmonic) relations in chord sequences. An explicit task (acceptability judgement of novel sequences) was used. The second experiment, with 9 individuals with Broca's aphasia (and 12 matched controls), probed musical syntactic processing using an implicit task (harmonic priming). Outcomes & Results: In both experiments the aphasic group showed impaired processing of musical syntactic relations. Control experiments indicated that this could not be attributed to low‐level problems with the perception of pitch patterns or with auditory short‐term memory for tones. Conclusions: The results suggest that musical syntactic processing in agrammatic aphasia deserves systematic investigation, and that such studies could help probe the nature of the processing deficits underlying linguistic agrammatism. Methodological suggestions are offered for future work in this little‐explored area.

In music, large intervals ("pitch skips") are often followed by reversals, and phrases often have an arch‐like shape and final durational lengthening. These regularities could reflect motor constraints on pitch production or could reflect the melodic characteristics of speech. To distinguish between these possibilities we compared pitch patterns in instrumental musical themes, sentences, and birdsongs. Patterns due to production‐related constraints should be common to all three domains, whereas patterns due to statistical learning from speech should be present in speech but not birdsong. Sequences were taken from English and French instrumental classical music, sentences from 4 languages, and songs of 56 songbird families. For sentences and birdsongs each syllable/note was assigned one pitch. For each sequence, we quantified patterns of post‐skip reversals, the direction of the initial and final interval, the relative duration of the final syllable/note, and the pitch contour shape. Post‐skip reversals predominated in all domains, likely reflecting a shared constraint: skips frequently take melodies toward the edges of the pitch range, forcing a subsequent reversal (as suggested by Von Hippel & Huron, 2000). Arch‐like contours and final lengthening were found in music and speech but not birdsong, possibly reflecting an influence of speech patterns on musical structure.

For over half a century, musicologists and linguists have suggested that the prosody of a culture’s native language is reflected in the rhythms and melodies of its instrumental music. Testing this idea requires quantitative methods for comparing musical and spoken rhythm and melody. This study applies such methods to the speech and music of England and France. The results reveal that music reflects patterns of durational contrast between successive vowels in spoken sentences, as well as patterns of pitch interval variability in speech. The methods presented here are suitable for studying speech-music relations in a broad range of cultures.