Ryk Lues

Food safety culture (FSC) is a structured, measurable and enforceable element of the food industry, which is essential for building consumer trust and safeguarding consumer wellness. Regardless of the size of the organisation, FSC plays a pivotal role in safety and quality assurance and should be embedded in the company’s values and beliefs, ultimately manifesting in employee behaviours. FSC’s principal denominators encompass the fundamental principles of leadership, knowledge, engagement, environment, performance, and outcome. These principles collectively form a holistic framework that is pivotal for enhancing the efficacy and efficiency of safety initiatives in the food supply chain. FSC should be integrated into existing food safety standards, aligning with management systems and enjoying support and ownership at all levels and portfolios. Attaining a strong FSC requires commitment and active participation, not only from departments and sections directly involved with food handling, but also from administrative departments and branches. A non-conducive or weak culture, on the other hand, creates barriers to the achievement of safety goals and creates environments that may lead to product safety failures and non-conformances, with potential detrimental impacts on both consumer and business well-being. The absence of a specific culture constitutes a culture in itself, and, therefore, regular, valid, and reliable assessment is crucial for understanding the current state of FSC, without drawing generalised, superficial, or biased conclusions. In this study, the history and context of FSC are discussed, as well as narratives on assessment protocols and improvement initiatives. A trustworthy and ethical assessment is the first step in a three-phase process, involving assessment, alignment, and intervention to improve FSC, constituting various subcategories. The ultimate intent of this study is to provide turn-key solutions through presenting ideas, debating concepts and proposing interventions to guide and inform FSC improvement, culminating in safe and wholesome products.

Microbial components are part of the composition of all waste, including lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., agricultural, domestic, industrial, and municipal wastes) generated via human activities. If little attention is given to these wastes or if they are not adequately managed, they tend to end up in the environment (soil, water, and farmland), decomposing naturally through microbial activities, producing greenhouse gases, causing eutrophication, preventing sunlight penetration, and depleting oxygen in the water. Several treatment methods are applicable to these wastes. However, anaerobic digestion is presented as the best option to properly treat the waste. It is regarded as the best technique to achieve sustainable energy development in both developing and developed countries. During anaerobic digestion, the organic matter in the waste is converted via the concerted activities of microbes belonging to different trophic levels, in the absence of oxygen, to yield biogas (renewable energy), bio-fertiliser, and sanitisation of the waste, rendering it better and safer for human handling. Varying levels of loss of bacterial viability and their antibiotic-resistance genes are observed with this process, as bacteria differ in susceptibility to temperature, pH, nutrient scarcity, and the presence of antimicrobials. Anaerobic digestion of agricultural residues and the immediate processing (post-treatment) of the digestate help to stabilise the digestate, making it safe for land applications, tackling waste management, and protecting food chains from contamination, in addition to the environment. This review focuses on the anaerobic digestion of lignocellulosic biomass, yielding biogas as energy, alongside sanitising the wastes by inactivating microbial components found therein, therefore reducing the contamination potential of the effluent or digestate discharged from the biodigester following the process. Several findings registered by different researchers through different studies performed in different countries under different scenarios while employing varying methods have been assembled in a chronological fashion to emphasise similarities and divergences or variations that deepen knowledge pertaining to the significance of the anaerobic digestion process in terms of the microbial interactions responsible for producing energy, addressing sanitisation and hygiene crisis, and the post-treatment of the digestate to ensure its use as biofertiliser. In other words, it is a comprehensive review that synthesises knowledge from multiple fields covering comparative aspects of anaerobic digestion in terms of sanitation, hygiene, and energy production and consolidates it in a single document to present and address the problem of waste management through anaerobic digestion technology.

Regulatory frameworks and industry standards increasingly recognise food safety culture (FSC); however, researchers have paid limited attention to its application in condiment manufacturing. This study investigated the existing FSC within a wet condiment manufacturing organisation based in South Africa through a secondary analysis of quantitative data from a consultative project. The quantitative assessment, which involved a mono-methodology, explored five key FSC constructs: vision (shared understanding of food safety goals and leadership commitment), inspiration (employee motivation and engagement), empowerment (training and resources supporting food safety goals), performance (management of food safety systems and compliance), and change appetite (organisational adaptability and openness to improvement). By assessing these constructs, the study addresses sector-specific challenges in an underexplored segment of the food industry. Essentially, the purpose of the study is to contribute to the body of knowledge on FSC within the particular context of condiment manufacturing. The findings add a regional perspective to global FSC discourse, providing transdisciplinary insights that influence food systems, public health, and organisational culture in high-risk manufacturing environments. Transdisciplinary contribution: This study supports a practical framework for identifying FSC shortcomings and shaping targeted, transdisciplinary interventions within wet condiment manufacturing. It advances the understanding of FSC within the distinctive context of the condiment industry, demonstrating how transdisciplinary collaboration strengthens organisational performance and safeguards public health. Strengthening leadership commitment, communication, and inclusive organisational culture are central to fostering a resilient FSC and promoting food system improvement within developing regions.

Listeria monocytogenes is an intracellular, Gram-positive, non-spore-forming, non-encapsulated, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, and psychrotrophic food-borne pathogen that causes the infection, listeriosis, thus it attracts great attention following listeriosis outbreaks, which are often associated with high mortality rates. The prevalence of listeriosis is quite low globally; however, the most recent and deadliest outbreak occurred in South Africa, during which 216 persons lost their lives. L. monocytogenes is endowed with the potential to multiply through a wide range of harsh environmental conditions, forming biofilms on varying surfaces in the food industry, as well as having persistent and antibiotic-resistant cells, which pose a major threat and burden to the ready-to-eat food industry. A more frustrating characteristic of this bacterium is its strain divergence, alongside an increased level of antibiotic resistance registered among the strains of L. monocytogenes recovered from food, humans, and environmental sources, especially to those antibiotics involved in the treatment of human listeriosis. Antibiotic resistance exerted by and among pathogenic food-borne microbes is an ongoing public health menace that continues to be an issue. Against this background, a thorough search into different databases using various search engines was performed, which led to the gathering of salient information that was organised, chronologically, based on Listeria monocytogenes and listeriosis. Altogether, the findings elaborated in this study present up-to date knowledge on different aspects of this pathogen which will improve our understanding of the mystery associated with it and the ways to prevent and control its dissemination through ready-to-eat foods. In addition, constant monitoring of the antibiotic resistance profiles of strains of L. monocytogenes from varying sources detected changes, giving an update on the trend in antibiotic resistance. Overall, monitoring of bacterial contamination serves as the key aspect in the control of the food safety output in the food industry.

The societal impact of new knowledge and the role of Universities of Technology (UoTs) in its generation is the focus of this chapter. It argues that while the roles of UoTs have become more complex, the guiding principles for postgraduate education knowledge generation role has remained rooted in ‘classical university’ pedagogy. The concern of the chapter is that in developing economies there is a growing debate on the relevance of ‘traditional knowledge creation’ versus ‘practical applications’ knowledge creation. By applying the concept of ‘permeable universities’ to make its point, the chapter examines whether UoTs in South Africa have fully embraced the need to revise and reshape their doctoral pedagogies to generate knowledge relevant to their immediate societal contexts.

Meat comprises proteins, fats, vitamins, and trace elements, essential nutrients for the growth and development of the body. The increased demand for meat necessitates the use of antibiotics in intensive farming to sustain and raise productivity. However, the high water activity, the neutral pH, and the high protein content of meat create a favourable milieu for the growth and the persistence of bacteria. Meat serves as a portal for the spread of foodborne diseases. This occurs because of contamination. This review presents information on animal farming in South Africa, the microbial and chemical contamination of meat, and the consequential effects on public health. In South Africa, the sales of meat can be operated both formally and informally. Meat becomes exposed to contamination with different categories of microbes, originating from varying sources during preparation, processing, packaging, storage, and serving to consumers. Apparently, meat harbours diverse pathogenic microorganisms and antibiotic residues alongside the occurrence of drug resistance in zoonotic pathogens, due to the improper use of antibiotics during farming. Different findings obtained across the country showed variations in prevalence of bacteria and multidrug-resistant bacteria studied, which could be explained by the differences in the manufacturer practices, handling processes from producers to consumers, and the success of the hygienic measures employed during production. Furthermore, variation in the socioeconomic and political factors and differences in bacterial strains, geographical area, time, climatic factors, etc. could be responsible for the discrepancy in the level of antibiotic resistance between the provinces. Bacteria identified in meat including Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., etc. are incriminated as pathogenic agents causing serious infections in human and their drug-resistant counterparts can cause prolonged infection plus long hospital stays, increased mortality and morbidity as well as huge socioeconomic burden and even death. Therefore, uncooked meat or improperly cooked meat consumed by the population serves as a risk to human health.

Modern society is characterised by its outstanding capacity to generate waste. Lignocellulosic biomass is most abundant in nature and is biorenewable and contains energy sources formed via biological photosynthesis from the available atmospheric carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, constituting a complex polymer. The traditional disposal of these types of waste is associated with several environmental and public health effects; however, they could be harnessed to produce several value-added products and clean energy. Moreover, the increase in population and industrialisation have caused current energy resources to be continuously exploited, resulting in the depletion of global fuel reservoirs. The overexploitation of resources has caused negative environmental effects such as climate change, exacerbating global greenhouse gas emissions. In the quest to meet the world’s future energy needs and adequate management of these types of waste, the anaerobic digestion of lignocellulosic biomass has remained the focus, attracting great interest as a sustainable alternative to fossil carbon resources. However, substrate characteristics offer recalcitrance to the process, which negatively impacts the methane yield. Nevertheless, the biodigestibility of these substrates can be enhanced through chemical, physical, and biological pretreatment methods, leading to improvement in biogas yields. Furthermore, the co-digestion of these substrates with other types and adding specific nutrients as trace elements or inoculum will help to adjust substrate characteristics to a level appropriate for efficient anaerobic digestion and increased biogas yield.

The disposal of treated and untreated sewage near shellfish harvesting areas is a global concern. Discharged sewage may be contaminated with enteric viruses present in human faeces. Bivalve molluscs, in turn, act as vectors for enteric viruses through bioaccumulation and retention of these viruses during the filter-feeding process, resulting in outbreaks of infections due to the consumption of contaminated shellfish. This review was conducted using peer-reviewed articles published from 2012 until September 2022, obtained from online databases such as Google Scholar, Scopus, and Science Direct, highlighting the challenges that the shellfish industry is faced with concerning pollutants ending up in the shellfish production areas. Developed countries have made some advancements by upgrading sewage infrastructures, which reduced viral loads in sewage. However, it is difficult to measure the significance of these improvements, as there are no regulations in place which stipulate the permissible limits for viruses. In most developing countries, including South Africa, there is a lack of effective management plans for virus monitoring in shellfish harvesting areas. The findings of this study indicated a need for extensive research on the origin of viruses, their interactions with other organisms within the marine ecosystem, the quantification of viruses within the Saldanha Bay harbour, and the development of virus management plans which currently are non-existent.