Toomas Tammaru

Many prey reveal conspicuous color patches during movement that become concealed when they stop. Such abrupt changes in appearance have been proposed to disrupt predator tracking and make prey more difficult to relocate, providing the basis of the flash coloration hypothesis. However, empirical support remains inconsistent and comes largely from experiments using human observers or simplified artificial prey. Here, we used touchscreen-equipped operant chambers to test the flash coloration hypothesis with wild blue tits ( Cyanistes caeruleus ) searching for moving digital prey modelled on Catocala moths. The digital prey revealed either conspicuous or cryptic hindwings during flight before adopting a cryptic resting appearance. Contrary to predictions, conspicuous hindwings neither increased prey survival nor delayed prey relocation compared to moths with cryptic hindwings. However, conspicuous hindwings also did not incur detectable predation costs. In contrast, background strongly affected prey detection, with moths surviving better on realistic bark than on smooth grey backgrounds. Our results provide no evidence that conspicuous colors revealed during movement enhance prey survival in this context, suggesting that any protective effect attributed to flash coloration may be weak or strongly dependent on ecological conditions. Lay Summary: Many animals reveal bright colors while moving but conceal them when stationary. This sudden change in appearance has been proposed to confuse predators and make prey harder to relocate. We tested this idea using wild blue tits hunting digital moths. Bright hindwings revealed during flight did not increase moth survival or delay relocation, but they also carried no detectable predation cost. The protective value of these movement-dependent color changes may therefore be weak or depend strongly on ecological context.

Urbanization is transforming environments globally. The altered abiotic conditions and biotic interactions in urban habitats impose divergent selection pressures on urban versus rural populations, while genetic drift may also be significant in typically small urban populations. A key question in urban evolution concerns the origin and spread of urban genotypes. Examples exist of both single and multiple origins of urban genotypes, but these have proven difficult to generalize. Here, we address genetic differentiation among urban populations, among rural populations, and between urban and rural populations. We conducted an extensive population genomic double digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing analysis of two non-model grassland lepidopterans, Coenonympha pamphilus and Chiasmia clathrata, across Europe. The genetic population structures of the study species were strikingly different: Co. pamphilus showed strong population differentiation, while this was almost absent in Ch. clathrata, which instead showed signs of high current and past gene flow among populations. The results of Co. pamphilus are consistent with multiple origins of urban populations, and multiple origins also seem plausible in Ch. clathrata. These results suggest that past and large-scale population dynamics need to be integrated into urban evolution research, because population history affects urban evolutionary dynamics.

Noctuidae are one of the largest and taxonomically most challenging families of Lepidoptera, with more than 12,000 species. Earlier phylogenetic studies using a limited number of molecular markers have helped in resolving evolutionary relationships within Noctuidae, but many groups have still received very little attention. A phylogenomic tree of Noctuidae was inferred using 333 species with the help of the anchored hybrid enrichment method of sequencing, focusing on northern European fauna. The final data matrix comprised fragments of 548 protein‐coding genes and totaled 249,138 nucleotides. Though the results largely support earlier hypotheses on the phylogenetic structure of Noctuidae, several cases were revealed where updates to the current taxonomy of the family are required. These include upgrading former tribe Prodeniini Forbes to subfamily Prodeniinae ( stat. rev .) and former subtribe Poliina Beck to tribe Poliini ( stat. rev .), sinking former subtribe Cosmiina Guenée into Xylenina Guenée ( syn. n .), moving Xylocampa Guenée from Amphipyrinae to Oncocnemidinae Forbes & Franclemont, synonymising Cornutiplusia Kostrowicki with Autographa Hübner ( syn. n .), Epilecta Hübner with Noctua Linnaeus ( syn. n .), Cryptocala Benjamin with Noctua ( syn. rev .) and Senta Stephens with Leucania Ochsenheimer ( syn. rev .). Pseudaletia Franclemont ( stat. rev .) and Aneda Sukhareva ( stat. rev .) are elevated to full genera, Coenophila Stephens is downgraded to subgenus of Xestia Hübner ( stat. n .) and Anorthoa Berio to subgenus of Orthosia Ochsenheimer ( stat. rev .). These changes led to several new or revised combinations: Autographa circumflexa (Linnaeus) ( comb. rev .), Noctua linogrisea Denis & Schiffermüller ( comb. rev .), Noctua chardinyi (Boisduval) ( comb. rev .), Leucania flammea (Curtis) ( comb. rev .), Pseudaletia separata (Walker) ( comb. rev .), Aneda rivularis (Fabricius) ( comb. rev .), Xestia subrosea (Stephens) ( comb. n .) and Orthosia munda (Denis & Schiffermüller) ( comb. rev .). Several further conflicts with the current classification requiring further studies were highlighted.

Human activities, particularly those exacerbated by climate change, are major drivers of biodiversity change. While many human actions degrade biodiversity, some anthropogenic habitats can provide refuges for certain species, insects in particular. Research on the human impact on biodiversity remains uneven both geographically and taxonomically. In this study, nocturnal moth assemblages were compared across three habitat types (forest, riverbanks and olive groves) representing a gradient from natural to heavily human-altered environments in a semi-arid landscape of Morocco. Moths were systematically sampled across an altitudinal gradient ranging from 900 to 1600 m using automatic sugar-bait traps. We recorded 105 macroheteroceran species, most of which belonged to the families Noctuidae and Erebidae. The differences in moth assemblages among the studied habitats were statistically significant, with magnitudes comparable to those observed among the study sites. Altitude had a relatively weak influence on abundance and species richness. Olive groves exhibited the highest moth abundance and species richness, though they were dominated by common and widespread species. Forests supported a greater number of rare species, while riverbanks had lower abundance and species richness. In conclusion, while traditional agriculture can support species-rich insect communities in semi-arid landscapes, maintaining natural vegetation remains crucial, as forests, though less species-rich, still enhance overall moth diversity.

Forests ecosystems sustaining most of the terrestrial biodiversity are under increasing anthropogenic pressure. Both the protection of the remaining natural forests and the mitigation of the negative effects of silviculture are of primary conservation concern. Clear‐cut areas are the main open habitats in production forests, potentially offering temporary refuge for species from declining semi‐natural grasslands. Although several groups of flower‐visiting insects, including butterflies, have been reported to thrive in clear‐cuts, a taxonomically comprehensive understanding of the insect fauna utilizing these habitats is lacking. In this study, we examined the assemblages of nocturnal macromoths (Lepidoptera: Marcoheterocera) in forest clear‐cuts of varying age (2–6 years) and regeneration regimes (natural vs. artificial) in northern Europe. Using automatic sugar‐bait traps, we sampled 50 clear‐cuts and three pairs of forest‐grassland reference sites over two summers. Nocturnal moths of the clear‐cuts were highly diverse, harbouring 50% of the regional species pool of noctuids. However, several common grassland‐associated species, as well as a few forest species, were nearly absent. Although the similarity between clear‐cut and forest assemblages increased with clear‐cut age, the recorded characteristics of the clear‐cuts had little overall influence on moth assemblages. Artificially regenerated clear‐cuts, characterized by a more open vegetation structure, supported slightly higher moth species richness and diversity compared with naturally regenerating sites. Policy implications. Our results highlight the role of forest clear‐cuts in supporting insect biodiversity. As such, clear‐cuts warrant special consideration as a distinct habitat type. However, the effects of clear‐cut regeneration and maintenance methods on assemblages of moths appear weaker than in various other insect groups. More importantly, the absence of several common grassland species highlights that clear‐cuts cannot fully replace traditional open habitats. This underscores the importance of conserving semi‐natural grasslands.

Understanding the movement patterns of organisms is crucial for effective biodiversity conservation in the increasingly dynamic and fragmented landscapes. Since the colonization of habitat patches relies largely on females, sex differences in movement capability must also be considered. However, obtaining direct measurements of mobility and dispersal, and sex biases in these traits, is often challenging. This underscores the importance of predicting sex‐specific estimates of mobility based on species' functional traits. Our phylogenetic comparative study aims at identifying species traits that could serve as proxies for sex bias in mobility in flying insects. We rely on a comprehensive dataset on the sex ratios of 454 moth species (Lepidoptera: Macroheterocera), captured by light traps of the Finnish national moth monitoring scheme. We first demonstrate that, in the vast majority of species, males outnumber females among the captured individuals. Our phylogenetic regression models reveal that species‐specific sex ratios correlate with traits typically predicted to be associated with sex differences in mobility. Female proportions decrease as sexual dimorphism in wingspan becomes more male‐biased and female wing loading relative to males increases. Proportions of females are also lower in larger species. Females are particularly scarce in trap samples of species in which the reproductive output of females is primarily determined by larval‐derived resources (i.e. capital breeders). These associations suggest that the observed variations in sex ratios do indeed mirror the variation in sex bias in mobility across species. Our findings highlight the potential of trait‐based approaches to identify meaningful indicators of insect mobility, including sex biases in movement patterns. The availability of such proxies facilitates predictions about how different species might respond to contemporary challenges, such as light pollution and habitat loss and fragmentation. The detected associations also advance ordination schemes of insect life histories by integrating mobility measures into relevant analyses.

Urbanisation is transforming environments globally. The altered abiotic conditions and biotic interactions in urban habitats impose divergent selection pressures on urban versus rural populations, while genetic drift may also be significant in typically small urban populations. A key question in urban evolution concerns the origin and spread of urban genotypes. Examples exist of both single and multiple origins of urban genotypes, but these have proven difficult to generalize. Here, we address genetic differentiation among urban populations, among rural populations, and between urban and rural populations. We conducted an extensive population genomic double digest restriction-site associated DNA sequencing analysis of two non-model grassland lepidopterans, Coenonympha pamphilus and Chiasmia clathrata , across Europe. The genetic population structures of the study species were strikingly different: Co. pamphilus showed strong population differentiation, while this was almost absent in Ch. clathrata , which instead showed signs of high current and past gene flow among populations. Results of Co. pamphilus are consistent with multiple origins of urban populations, and multiple origins seem plausible also in Ch. clathrata . These results suggest that past and large-scale population dynamics need to be integrated into urban evolution research, because population history affects urban evolutionary dynamics.

Natural enemies play a key role in population dynamics of insects and exert significant selective pressures on various traits of these animals. Although there is a wealth of empirical and theoretical research on predators and parasitoids, the ecological role of pathogens (other than viruses) remains less understood. Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), encompassing over 1000 known species from 11 phyla, have primarily been studied in the context of biocontrol in agroecosystems, while their role in natural ecosystems is poorly known. In this paper, we synthesize case studies reporting the prevalence of EPF infections in field populations of insects. We examine differences in this variable among major host taxa and those of the pathogens. From 79 case studies that met our selection criteria, we retrieved data on 122 species of fungi infecting 104 insect species. The meta‐analytic median prevalence of fungal infections was 8.2%; even if likely inflated by publication bias, this suggests that EPF‐induced mortality levels are lower than those attributable to predators and parasitoids. We found no substantial differences in fungal prevalence among major insect taxa and only a moderate difference among fungal orders, with Neozygitales showing the highest prevalence and Eurotiales the lowest. Our analysis revealed no significant differences in overall EPF prevalence between tropical and temperate studies, although different fungal taxa showed different geographical patterns. In temperate areas, there is some evidence of increasing infection prevalence toward the end of the growing season. Although quantitative data on the effect of EPF on insect populations are still scarce, evidence is consistent with the emerging generalization that insect populations commonly harbor species‐rich assemblages of pathogenic fungi, but infections rarely reach epidemic levels. Further studies on multi‐species assemblages of EPF associated with natural insect populations are needed to better understand the ecological role of fungal infections.

Drepanidae are one of the families of Lepidoptera that have received little attention in terms of phylogenetic studies. This study aims to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships among Drepanidae using eleven molecular markers, totalling more than 7,500 bp. A phylogenetic tree based on 37 species of Drepanidae was inferred, including 21 of the 22 European drepanids. The results of this study support monophyly of all four subfamilies of Drepanidae. Oretinae and Drepaninae were recovered as sister groups forming one of the two main clades of Drepanidae, whereas Cyclidiinae and Thyatirinae belong to the other clade. This analysis demonstrates that hooked wingtips, a characteristic feature of the Drepaninae + Oretinae lineage, have disappeared repeatedly in the course of evolution. All "winter moths" among the drepanids, i.e. species characterized by their flight period being very early in spring form a distinct well-supported clade within the subfamily Thyatirinae. Moreover, all studied thyatirine genera that are characterized by pink or orange blotches on the forewings also belong to one statistically well-supported clade. The phylogenetic framework presented enhances our understanding of the diversification of Drepanidae and provides the groundwork for future taxonomic and evolutionary studies.

A comprehensive phylogeny of north European Geometridae is reconstructed using a two‐step analytical pipeline. First, a phylogenomic backbone tree was inferred using a 117‐species subset of geometrid moths and a 35‐species set of outgroup taxa from eight other macroheteroceran families. The data matrix totalled 209,499 bp from 648 protein‐coding loci obtained using anchored hybrid enrichment technique for sequencing. This backbone was used for constructing a larger phylogeny of Geometridae based on up to 11 ‘traditional’ protein‐coding genes which were obtained for all 376 species of north European geometrids, complemented by 98 species from taxonomic key groups of Geometridae from other parts of the world. Our results largely corroborate earlier findings about higher classification of Geometridae, but new evidence nevertheless allows us to suggest several changes to the taxonomy. Lampropterygini Õunap & Nedumpally tribus nova and Pelurgini Õunap & Nedumpally tribus nova (both Larentiinae) are described. Epirranthini are regarded as a junior subjective synonym of Rumiini syn. n. Triphosini and Macariini are shown to be paraphyletic within their current limits. Costaconvexa Agenjo is transferred from Xanthorhoini to Epirrhoini new tribe association , Artiora Meyrick from Ennomini incertae sedis to Boarmiini new tribe association , Selenia Hübner from Ennominae incertae sedis to Epionini new tribe association and Epirranthis Hübner from Epirranthini to Rumiini new tribe association . Ochyria Hübner stat. rev. is revived from synonym of Xanthorhoe Hübner as a valid genus and Epelis Hulst stat. rev. and Speranza Curtis stat. rev. from synonyms of Macaria Curtis as valid genera, leading to the following new or revised combinations: Ochyria quadrifasiata (Clerck) rev. comb. , Epelis carbonaria (Clerck) comb. n. , Speranza fusca (Thunberg) comb. n. , Speranza artesiaria (Denis & Schiffermüller) rev. comb. , Speranza brunneata (Thunberg) rev. comb. , Speranza wauaria (Linnaeus) rev. comb. , Speranza loricaria (Eversmann) rev. comb. Perizoma saxicola Tikhonov rev. comb. is transferred back to its original genus from Gagitodes Warren. Hydrelia Hübner, Xanthorhoe and Heliomata Grote & Robinson are shown to be paraphyletic within their current limits.