Nikola Škoro

Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming research practices across disciplines, yet its integration into scientific workflows remains uneven and contested. While policy and institutional discussions increasingly promote the adoption of AI in science, less is known about the barriers researchers face in practice. This study addresses this gap through a structured qualitative analysis of stakeholder inputs collected using a concept-mapping approach involving internationally diverse researchers. Through iterative coding and consensus validation, we identify eight interrelated categories of barriers to AI implementation in research: data quality, governance and security; ethical, social and accountability concerns; methodological and epistemic incompatibilities; skill gaps and uneven AI literacy; inadequate technical infrastructure and access; financial and institutional constraints; regulatory and policy gaps; and issues of trust, transparency and explainability. These barriers are not independent but form a coupled system that shapes the conditions under which AI can be meaningfully integrated into scientific knowledge production. Importantly, because these barriers operate at the systemic, organisational, methodological, and epistemic levels of research, they remain relevant despite the rapid evolution of specific AI technologies and tools. The findings highlight a misalignment between top-down policy initiatives and bottom-up research practices, suggesting that current governance frameworks do not sufficiently account for the epistemic and operational realities of research environments. By articulating a researcher-centred typology of barriers and their relative urgency, this study contributes to the literature on innovation systems and the transformation of science, and provides actionable insights for policymakers, institutions, and research stakeholders seeking to enable responsible and effective AI integration.

We present characterization of atmospheric pressure Ar streamer jet, diagnostics of physico‐chemical properties of Plasma Activated Water (PAW), and modeling of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species (RONS) deposited in PAW. Additional focus is on the toxicity of the created PAW to model plant Lemna minor . The streamer jet is characterized by analyzing electrical properties, gas‐phase characteristics through plasma emission, and laser‐induced fluorescence of OH(X) radicals. Measured OH densities are in the range of 10 ²⁰ m ⁻³ depending on the mean power deposited to plasma. Gas phase species are linked to measured RONS concentrations, while modeling results confirmed the production mechanisms of H ₂ O ₂ , NO₂⁻ and NO₃⁻ species. Experiments with Lemna minor show both favorable and negative effects of PAW depending on the PAW concentration.

The aim of this study was to explore the effectiveness of cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) treatments for reducing the deoxynivalenol (DON) content in spiked white wheat flour samples containing 750 μg kg⁻¹ DON. The flour samples were treated with plasma generated in air for durations of 30 s, 60 s, 90 s, 120 s, 150 s, and 180 s and at four distances from the cold plasma source: 6 mm, 21 mm, 36 mm, and 51 mm. An artificial neural network (ANN) model with three layers utilizing the Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb-Shanno (BFGS) iterative algorithm was developed to predict the reduction in deoxynivalenol (DON) content, moisture content, and temperature in wheat flour samples following cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) treatment. The model accounted for two key variables: the distance from the plasma source and the treatment duration. The ANN model exhibited excellent predictive performance, achieving coefficient of determination (r²) values of 0.999, 0.996, and 0.996 for DON reduction, moisture content, and temperature, respectively, during the training phase. The ANN model successfully identified the experimental optimal CAP conditions (51 mm distance and 150 s treatment), resulting in a 71% reduction in DON content. Multi-objective optimization (MOO) using the ANN further predicted the same level of reduction but at 168 s while maintaining acceptable moisture and temperature levels, representing the model-derived optimal treatment within the investigated design space. The study highlights the potential of ANNs to model complex relationships and optimize CAP treatment for efficient mycotoxin reduction in wheat flour.

The application of non-thermal (cold) plasmas is considered an environmentally friendly method that could affect plant metabolism and cellular development or can be used for the commercial production of natural products that cannot be chemically synthesized. In the present study, the non-embryogenic callus of iris (Iris reichenbachii Heuff.) was treated with a Radio Frequency (RF) plasma needle device using He as a working gas. We investigated short-term (up to seven days) and long-term (up to one year) changes on morphological, physiological and biochemical levels. An increased production of O₂⁻ and H₂O₂ was observed in the callus tissue after plasma treatment. The enzymes SOD and CAT represented the frontline in the antioxidant defense against reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during the first hour of treatment, while POX was the leading antioxidant enzyme seven days after plasma treatment. Significant long-term morphological changes were observed in the calli due to the increased mitotic activity of the plant cells. In addition, three flavonoids (naringenin, apigenin and acacetin) and two isoflavonoids (irisolidone and irilone) were detected only in the plasma-treated tissue even one year after plasma treatment. The present study emphasizes the application of the plasma technique to promote meristematic activity and stimulate the production of specialized metabolites in iris calli.

The scope of the antibacterial effects of plasma-activated water (PAW) is not yet fully comprehended. We investigated the activity of PAW produced by the in-house 3-pin atmospheric pressure plasma jet against carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, with a focus on PAW’s potential to promote susceptibility to conventional antibiotics in these bacteria. Bacterial inactivation was determined by the colony count after 15 and 60 min PAW treatments. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) measured following repeated exposures to PAW across multiple generations of bacteria enabled the assessment of changes in susceptibility to antibiotics. The PAW’s efficacy was also analyzed through the detection of intracellular reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in treated bacteria. Time-dependent significant inactivation efficiency against K. pneumoniae was observed (log reduction 6.92 ± 0.24 after 60 min exposure), while effects on E. faecalis were limited. PAW demonstrated potential to decrease the MICs of crucial antibiotics. Namely, a 50 to 62.5% decrease in the MICs of colistin against K. pneumoniae and a 25% reduction in the MICs of vancomycin against enterococci were recorded. We found a significant increase in the superoxide anion concentration in K. pneumoniae and E. faecalis cells after PAW treatments. This study indicates that PAW’s inactivating efficacy coupled with the capacity for the potentiation of antibiotic effects is a promising combination against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Background/Objectives: Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) has shown a strong anticancer effect on a variety of tumors, presenting a new approach for the effective treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), one of the most prevalent malignant neoplasms with a high mortality rate. Here, we aimed to comprehensively investigate the antitumor potential of two approaches of CAP treatment on both two-dimensional and three-dimensional OSCC cell line models, as well as to analyze whether plasma treatment enhances the sensitivity of OSCC to chemotherapy. Methods: An in-house designed plasma needle, with helium as a working gas, was used to treat the SCC-25 cell line directly or indirectly via plasma-treated medium (PTM). The antitumor effect of CAP was assessed by measuring cell viability, apoptosis, adhesion, and migration. In addition, the combined effect of PTM and cisplatin was analyzed in SCC-25 tumor spheroids, as a more complex and reliable in vitro model. Results: Both plasma treatments showed time-dependent antitumor effects affecting their viability, adhesion, and migration. The rate of apoptosis was higher after incubation with PTM and is mediated by the intrinsic pathway. By utilizing the 3D spheroid carcinoma model, we confirmed the antitumor potential of CAP and additionally demonstrated an increased chemosensitivity of PTM-treated carcinoma cells. Conclusions: The results of our study illustrate a promising avenue for the application of CAP as a therapeutic option for OSCC, either as a standalone treatment or in combination with cisplatin.

Diabetic foot ulcers have an enormous impact on patients’ quality of life and represent a major economic burden. The cause is delayed and incomplete wound healing due to hyperglycemia, reduced blood flow, infections, oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. Plasma-activated water (PAW) is emerging as a new therapeutic approach in wound treatment, as it has many of the advantages of cold atmospheric plasma but is easier to apply, thus allowing for widespread use. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of PAW to improve wound healing in diabetic rats, with a focus on uncovering the underlying mechanisms. Two full-thickness wounds in control and diabetic animals were treated with PAW, and healing was monitored for 15 days at five time points. PAW improved wound healing in diabetic rats and mainly affected the inflammatory phase of wound healing. Application of PAW decreased the number of inflammatory cells, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and N-acetyl-b-D-glycosaminidase (NAG) activity, as well as the mRNA expression of proinflammatory genes in diabetic rats. Ten days after injury, PAW treatment increased collagen deposition in the diabetic animals by almost 10% without affecting collagen mRNA expression, and this is in correlation with a decrease in the Mmp-9/Timp-1 ratio. In conclusion, PAW treatment affects wound healing by reducing the inflammatory response and influencing extracellular matrix turnover, suggesting that it has great potential to accelerate the healing of diabetic wounds.

In this review, we give an overview of the applications of plasma activated water (PAW) and its chemistry in the field of agriculture. This article concentrates on the chemistry of long‐lived reactive species and their roles in plant cell mechanisms. The chemical reactions important for the creation of nitrate, nitrite, and hydrogen peroxide inside water during the production of PAW and their chemical paths inside the plant cells are discussed. We describe the use of different types of discharges for PAW production and present the results of PAW application to seeds and plants. We address the decontamination of agricultural chemicals in water along with the scarcely explored topic of water remediation. The major challenges and future possibilities for PAW in agriculture are also discussed.