Suhad Sonbul

Research on how non-natives process and learn binomials ( black and white ) is limited. The present study addresses this gap using online (eye-tracking) and offline (familiarity rating) tasks. Sixty non-native speakers of English (L1 = Arabic) read six stories seeded with 21 novel binomials in three conditions: one exposure, six exposures, and no exposure (i.e., only in post-test) in a counter-balanced design. Each item was also presented in the reversed order ( white and black ). The non-natives read the stories as their eye movements were monitored and answered comprehension questions. In addition to the novel binomials, 12 existing binomials (congruent with Arabic) were included in the passages as a baseline for comparison. After completing the reading task, the participants completed an offline rating task as a measure of declarative knowledge of the binomial configuration (i.e., word order). All items were rated twice, once in the forward direction and once in the reversed direction. Online results showed that non-natives were not sensitive to the configuration of existing binomials, and there was limited evidence of any sensitivity to novel binomials. Offline, non-natives showed sensitivity to the configuration restrictions of existing binomials but not novel ones.

Multi-word expressions (MWEs) are fixed, conventional strings of language (e.g. idioms, collocations, binomials, proverbs) which have been found to be widespread in language use. Research has shown that MWEs exhibit an online processing advantage over control phrases by first language (L1) and second language (L2) speakers. While this line of research has helped us better understand the nature of MWEs and factors that may influence their processing in real time, there remain several gaps that future research should focus on. In this piece, we focus on four main topics related to the online processing of MWEs: (1) comprehension of MWEs by L1 and L2 speakers, (2) production of MWEs by L1 and L2 speakers, (3) the processing of modified MWEs by L1 and L2 speakers, and (4) the processing of MWEs by L1 children. Under each topic, we propose nine research tasks that will further advance our understanding of MWE processing in real time. We conclude with relevance of MWE processing research to L2 teaching and learning.

Factors that predict second language (L2) collocation knowledge have been extensively studied, but research on predictors of L2 knowledge of idioms is still limited. The aim of the present study is to examine the effect of various factors established in L2 collocation research on idioms. These include L2 proficiency, idiom frequency, and congruency status (whether the idiom can be literally translated into the first language or L1). To that end, 225 L1-Arabic–L2-English speakers completed three measures (familiarity rating, meaningfulness rating, and meaning recall) involving 72 English idioms, half congruent and half incongruent. Additionally, the participants completed a vocabulary size test as a rough measure of their English proficiency. We initially examined the association between the ratings provided by the L2 participants and those of L1 speakers, which are available through a norming study. Then, we fit mixed-effects models to examine predictors of the three outcome measures. Raw meaning recall scores indicated that only 33% of the target idioms had their meanings correctly recalled. The statistical analysis showed a strong positive interaction between the familiarity and meaningfulness ratings provided by L2 speakers. However, the association between L1 and L2 ratings was weaker. Results of mixed-effect modelling showed that for all three measures, only estimated proficiency and congruency were significant determinants of L2 idiomatic knowledge. Additionally, estimated proficiency modulated the congruency effect only for the rating measures, with a larger difference between congruent and incongruent idioms as proficiency increased. We discuss the implications of these findings to the teaching and learning of L2 idioms.

Binomial expressions represent one type of formulaic sequences. Binomials have a distinguishing feature, known as “configuration restrictions” (for example, “black and white” is common in English, but “white and black” is not). However, research on how second language (L2) learners process and acquire such expressions is limited. Even more limited is the research examining how translation trainees handle such expressions when rendering texts to and from their first language. The present study aims to address this gap by examining the determinants of translating binomials into their preferred word order: congruency (similar or different configuration in the source and target language), translation direction, and L2 proficiency level. Eighty-six translation trainees (Arabic-English speakers) translated three types of binomials (“congruent,” “incongruent,” and “novel”) in both directions (from English to Arabic and from Arabic to English). Additionally, they completed a vocabulary test as a rough measure of L2 proficiency. Only congruency predicted the number of natural renderings of binomials; congruent items were rendered into their natural configuration above chance level (i.e., novel binomials). This was consistent regardless of translation direction or L2 proficiency level. These findings carry significant implications for translation education

With accelerating advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, which have provided new possibilities for language learning and teaching, this study explored the factors influencing the use of a popular AI tool, ChatGPT, for English language learning among post-secondary students in Saudi Arabia. A technology acceptance model (TAM) questionnaire was administered, which yielded 184 responses (31 males, and 153 females). The results revealed that the perceived ease of use and usefulness significantly affected ChatGPT adoption. However, no significant relationship was found between perceived ease of use and attitudes, suggesting that learners’ attitudes were influenced more by the tool’s benefits and value for language learning. A strong positive relationship was found between Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Attitude (AT), indicating that when learners perceive ChatGPT as useful, they have favourable attitudes toward it. Educators should emphasize these benefits and integrate ChatGPT into English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom to enhance language skills. A positive attitude toward ChatGPT leads to stronger behavioural intention to use it, which positively predicts actual use. Other factors, such as gender, education level, duration of usage, and IT skills, were also examined. The results showed that female respondents had more positive attitudes; master’s students perceived it as easier to use than diploma students; and longer usage durations were linked to a higher perceived ease of use. Understanding the impact of these factors can inform the integration of AI-powered tools in EFL teaching and learning environments, with interventions and support systems that promote learners’ intentions to use these tools and facilitate their actual usage.

Research on the translation of idioms is scarce. The present study aims to examine how translation trainees render figurative idioms. A total of 131 translation trainees were recruited from two universities in Saudi to represent two levels of training (novice vs. advanced). The participants were administered a translation task involving 18 idioms (e.g., “cold feet”, “old hat”, “fat cat”) and were instructed to translate them from English to Arabic. In addition to the level of training, the study examined the effect of context informativeness on the naturalness of the renderings provided. Finally, we administered a vocabulary size measure in English to assess any modulating effect of vocabulary size on the two main factors. Results showed no effect of the level of training. However, there was a significant effect of contextual clues; more informative contexts led to more natural renderings of idioms than less informative ones. Interestingly, vocabulary size interacted with informativeness; smaller differences between levels of informativeness as vocabulary size increased. The study has important implications for the training of translators.

Research comparing equal and expanding spacing schedules in relation to L2 single words is limited. Moreover, none of the existing studies has examined the learning of formulaic language. The current study aims to address this gap by investigating the impact of equal and expanding intervals on the long‐term retention of L2 collocations in deliberate learning contexts. Eighty‐three university learners of English (L1 Arabic) participated in the study. They were divided into three groups: equal spacing (7–7–7) condition; expanding spacing (1–5–15) condition; and a control condition (no exposure). The experimental groups completed four treatment sessions in which they were asked to deliberately learn 23 collocations. To assess collocation knowledge before and after the treatment, all groups took form recall and form recognition tests. Results show that both spacing conditions led to significantly higher gains than the control group in both tests. The difference between the two experimental groups was not significant for the recall measure but it was significant for the recognition measure (higher gains under “equal spacing”). Moreover, estimated language proficiency modulated the difference between the control and expanding conditions, with a sharper difference as proficiency increased. Important implications for language teaching and classroom instruction based on these findings are discussed.

Research examining teachers’ cognition of lexical items has flourished in the past few years. However, most of these studies focused on individual words rather than formulaic sequences. The present study aims to fill this gap through eliciting teachers’ evaluation of one type of formulaic sequences: phrasal verbs (PVs). The aim is to examine factors (frequency, opacity, and learners’ receptive and productive knowledge) that might predict teachers’ evaluation of the difficulty and usefulness of 100 PV senses. For that purpose, a survey was administered to 174 teachers. Results of generalized mixed-effects modelling showed that teachers’ assessment of both the usefulness and difficulty of PVs was predicted by sense-specific corpus frequency and receptive knowledge of these PV senses. Moreover, difficulty ratings were additionally affected by opacity and productive knowledge of PVs. We discuss these findings in relation to previous research on L2 PV knowledge and implications for L2 teaching practice.