Francesca Monteith

This study reinterprets a selection of elite tombs at the Majiayuan Cemetery (4th–3rd centuries BCE) as belonging to Xirong ritual specialists. Analysis reveals a stratified ritual system: beaded caps served as widespread elite cosmograms, while specialized, hip-suspended bronze mirrors were restricted to a few. Situating these objects within broader Inner Asian traditions demonstrates the caps connected wearers to the spirit world, and that the mirrors functioned as active spirit-conduits, marking their bearers as specialized mediators. Examination of the material evidence further reveals Xirong ritual as a purposeful synthesis, selectively adapting imported and local mirror technologies to serve a coherent local cosmology. Mortuary parity between these specialists and martial elites—sharing high-status goods like chariots—indicates spiritual authority was a foundational pillar of Xirong power, valued equally with martial prowess. This interpretation of the Xirong places them as agentive architects of a hybrid ritual system and as vital cultural intermediaries on the Warring States frontier.

Over the past decade, the rapid development of geospatial tools has significantly expanded the scope of archaeobotanical research, enabling unprecedented insights into ancient plant domestication, agricultural practices, and human-environment interactions. Within the Chinese context, where rich archaeobotanical records intersect with complex socio-ecological histories, GIS-driven approaches have revealed nuanced patterns of crop dispersal, settlement dynamics, and landscape modification. However, despite these advances, current applications remain largely exploratory, constrained by fragmented datasets and underutilized spatial-statistical methods. This paper argues that a more robust integration of large-scale archaeobotanical datasets with advanced ArcGIS functionalities—such as kernel density estimation, least-cost path analysis, and predictive modelling—is essential to address persistent gaps in the field. By synthesizing case studies from key Chinese Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, we demonstrate how spatial analytics can elucidate (1) spatiotemporal trends in plant use, (2) anthropogenic impacts on vegetation, and (3) the feedback loops between subsistence strategies and landscape evolution. Furthermore, we highlight the challenges of data standardization, scale dependency, and interdisciplinary collaboration in archaeobotanical ArcGIS. Ultimately, this study underscores the imperative for methodological harmonization and computational innovation to unravel the intricate relationships between ancient societies, agroecological systems, and long-term environmental change.

This study sheds light on the origin and trade routes of early red coral artifacts found in Xinjiang, primarily dating to the Han and Jin dynasties. The red coral relics examined, excavated from the Shengjindian cemetery of the Western Han Dynasty in Turpan, offer critical insights into the material’s provenance and its introduction to this pivotal region along the ancient Silk Road. Advanced gemological, mineralogical, and geochemical analyses—utilizing computed tomography (CT), laser Raman spectroscopy, and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)—has revealed distinctive features. These include red coloration, a waxy luster, concentric ring structures in cross-section, and calcareous composition, identifying the coral as Sardinian (Corallium rubrum), likely originating from the western Mediterranean region. The findings carry significant archaeological implications. Red coral first appears in the archaeological record in Xinjiang during the Western Han period, facilitated by the thriving Silk Road trade and the expanding influence of Buddhist culture. This study not only confirms the Mediterranean origin of these artifacts but also highlights their integration into the cultural and economic networks of ancient Xinjiang, underscoring the significance of early long-distance trade and cultural exchange.

During the Middle-to-Late Neolithic period (7000–3800 BP), Shaanxi Province served as a critical juncture in the transmission of crops. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), and rice (Oryza sativa) spread westwards into the Gansu–Qinghai region and southwards into the Sichuan basin, whilst wheat (Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) were transmitted through the Shaanxi region to the middle and lower Yellow River regions. Neolithic settlements are found in all three of the main geomorphic settings in Shaanxi: the Loess Plateau, plains, and mountainous areas. While the extent to which crop diffusion and distribution were influenced by environmental changes has previously been highlighted, the strategies of crop utilization in different geomorphic contexts have not been specified. Based on crop-remains data from 33 archaeological sites in Shaanxi, this study uses statistical modeling and ArcGIS-based spatial analysis to investigate prehistoric crop utilization in Shaanxi during the Neolithic period and its environmental determinants. Our results indicate the following: (1) The dominant crops in the Neolithic Shaanxi were foxtail millet and broomcorn millet, with the proportion of foxtail millet increasing over time. (2) The Guanzhong Plain was the earliest region in Shaanxi to adopt millet and rice (~7000–3800 BP). Subsequently, millet and rice had influenced the Qinba Mountains by ~5000 BP at the latest. By ~3800 BP, millet had affected the entire northern Shaanxi Plateau, with rice only found at the Shimao site around 4000 BP. Finally, wheat and barley influenced the Guanzhong region and the Qinba region in Shaanxi around 4000 BP. In addition, rice, wheat, and barley mainly enhanced agricultural diversity in the Guanzhong Plain and Qinba Mountains but had limited impact in the Northern Plateau, where cattle and sheep have enriched subsistence strategies since about 4500 BP. (3) Environmental factors affected the distribution of crops to different extents—elevation and river proximity had minimal effects on foxtail millet and broomcorn millet but significantly influenced the presence of rice, wheat, and barley. These factors led to a spatial pattern where millet dominated in the Northern Plateau, while the Guanzhong Plain and Qinba Mountains developed mixed farming systems incorporating all four seed types. This study provides new insights into the environmental mechanisms influencing crop diffusion and prehistoric human adaptation during the Neolithic period in Shaanxi.

Transitions in animal exploitation patterns are caused by topographical and climatic variations on both macro and micro scales. This paper presents temporally and spatially contextualized faunal profiles from 27 sites in the Guanzhong (关中) region of Shaanxi province (陕西省), PRC which date from the Early Neolithic to the Bronze Age (ca. 6000–1000 BCE). Climatic and environmental data was cross-referenced with archaeological, archaeobotanical and (where appropriate) historical sources to examine the reasons for the clear micro-transitions observed. Faunal profiles from sites in the Wei River plain (渭河盆地), loess plateau, and the transitional zone between them were analyzed. Animal utilization was found to vary substantially between different zones during the period under analysis. The transition in praxis between the Wei River valley and the loess plateau was not gradual. The hilly transition zone was found to have its own distinct animal exploitation pattern. These spatio-temporal differences in animal exploitation were caused by changes in both the local microclimates and the topography of the landscape in which the communities were living. Some regions apparently reverted to ‘earlier’ animal exploitation patterns in response to climatic changes. These environmental factors were also augmented by internal social developments and interactions with neighboring communities.

This paper is based on the study of four late to middle to late Tang Dynasty (781–907 CE) and one Song Dynasty (907–1279 CE) Buddhist sites which are set within a kilometre of one another to the south of the ancient centre of Rongxian (荣县), Zigong, Sichuan. The question addressed is whether these five religious sites could have existed as distinct entities, or if over time they became part of a unified whole. Traditionally such sites are considered as independent works of art divorced from their landscape and social context. Since the connections demonstrated in this paper indicate a unity of purpose we suggest that a more holistic approach to the study of such monuments is worthwhile. This paper proposes that although these sites were originally distinct entities during the Tang, they came to be connected by a pilgrimage route defined by the construction of a pagoda in the Song Dynasty.

Buddhism spread from northern India throughout the Asian continent from the first century BC onwards. As it spread, it changed and adapted to suit the new peoples and customs with which it came into contact. In recent years, studies have been undertaken on the landscape archaeology of Indian, Central Asian and Southeast Asian Buddhism. By focusing on China, this study represents a preliminary step in attempting to illuminate a new aspect of early Buddhist practice in China. It considers the chronological implications of the way in which the sites are positioned within the landscape. The study is based on survey work and site visits undertaken over the last five years, during the course of which certain patterns began to emerge. Based on these observations, an initial hypothesis was formed which states that the visibility of the locations into which cave sites are carved increases over time. Visibility is taken as the presence or prominence of a site within the physical landscape. This study focuses only on rock-cut cave-temples because they can still be clearly seen within their (nearly) original landscape settings. They can also be dated with relative accuracy on stylistic grounds. The same cannot be said of surface religious structures.