Piotr Łagowski

The dynamic growth of the electrified vehicle (xEV) market, including both electric and hybrid vehicles, has increased the demand for advanced Battery Management Systems (BMS). From an energy-systems perspective, xEV batteries act as distributed energy storage units that strongly interact with power grids, renewable generation, and charging infrastructure, making their efficient control a key element of low-carbon energy systems. Traditional BMS methods face challenges in accurately estimating key battery states and parameters, especially under dynamic operating conditions. This review systematically analyzes the progress in applying artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other advanced computational and data-driven algorithms to improve the performance of xEV battery management with a particular focus on energy efficiency, safe utilization of stored electrochemical energy, and the interaction between vehicles and the power system. The literature analysis covers key research trends from 2020 to 2025. This review covers a wide range of applications, including State of Charge (SOC) estimation, State of Health (SOH) prediction, and thermal management. We examine the use of various methods, such as deep learning, neural networks, genetic algorithms, regression, and also filtering algorithms, to solve these complex problems. This review also classifies the research by geographical distribution and document types, providing insight into the global landscape of this rapidly evolving field. By explicitly linking BMS functions with energy-system indicators such as charging load profiles, peak-load reduction, self-consumption of photovoltaic generation, and lifetime-aware energy use, this synthesis of contemporary research serves as a valuable resource for scientists and engineers who wish to understand the latest achievements and future directions in data-driven battery management and its role in modern energy systems.

The use of biofuels is one way of reducing the increasingly visible harmful impact of diesel engines on the environment. At the same time, it is also a way of gradually reducing dependence on depleting oil reserves. New sources of biodiesel production are currently being sought. New types of plant-based fuels are constantly being introduced to the market. Due to their different chemical composition compared to diesel fuel, these fuels may have significantly lower oxidation resistance. Oxidation stability is one of the basic performance characteristics of fuels used in diesel engines. This article presents the results of oxidation stability tests carried out using the RapidOxy device from Anton Paar, which uses a small-scale accelerated oxidation method in accordance with PN EN 16091:2023-1. The tests were carried out on diesel fuel and biofuels of various origins. Fuels such as diesel fuel without ester additives B 0 , diesel fuel with 7% FAME additive designated as B7, rapeseed fatty acid methyl esters (RME) and methyl esters from animal waste (AME). The tests were carried out at various measurement temperatures ranging from 110 to 140oC.

The use of biofuels is one way to reduce the increasingly visible harmful effects of diesel engines on the environment. At the same time, it is also a way to gradually reduce dependence on depleting oil resources. New sources for biodiesel production are currently being sought out. The authors of this article have produced esters from animal fat waste, obtaining a biofuel that can power diesel engines while obtaining a way to manage unnecessary waste. For this to be possible, it is necessary to confirm the possibility of using such biofuel to power compression ignition engines. To this end, it is moribund to conduct experimental tests on an engine dynamometer. The results of such studies made it possible to determine how such esters affect the parameters of the combustion process, which was the goal of the authors of this paper. In order to determine the effect of this biofuel on the parameters of the combustion process, indicator graphs of the pressure course in the engine cylinder were recorded. On their basis, heat release characteristics were drawn up and their most important indicators were determined. In addition, the parameters of the indicator charts were determined, such as the maximum pressure and the degree of its build-up during the combustion process. These tests were carried out on a Perkins 1104D-E44TA compression ignition engine, which is widely used in the construction industry as well as in agriculture. In order to be able to compare these results with diesel fuel, the same tests, under the same conditions, were carried out while feeding the engine with diesel fuel. It is worth noting that the tested esters were produced using a reactor designed and built by one of the co-authors of this publication. This reactor is used for the non-industrial production of biofuels from oils of various origins. Studies have shown that feeding the engine with esters results in an increase in the maximum fuel consumption of about 15%. This is dependent on the load and speed. Indicator graphs and their analysis indicated that feeding the engine with esters at lower loads results in higher maximum combustion pressures, depending on the engine load, compared to diesel fuel values by a maximum of about 10%. The calculated values of the degree of pressure increase during the combustion process showed that feeding the engine with esters at most loads results in an increase of up to 40% maximum. This is especially the case for a speed of 2200 rpm. In the case of parameters related to heat release characteristics, the relationship is the opposite, and feeding the engine with esters compared to diesel fuel results in higher maximum amounts and rates of heat release. These values are higher for esters from 20 to 40%. In addition, the percentage burnout of the fuel dose confirmed the information found in other publications that feeding the engine with biofuels causes faster combustion compared to diesel.

Progressive and increasingly noticeable climate change is forcing the search for new energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide. One way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is by gradually replacing fossil fuels with biofuels. The authors of this work addressed the production of second-generation biofuel. The purpose of this study was to produce second-generation biodiesel from babassu palm oil (BBuE) and first-generation biodiesel from rapeseed oil (RME), to study their properties, and to determine the effect of the addition of these biodiesels to diesel fuel on selected properties of “B” fuels that affect the fuel–air mixture formation process and the combustion process. Biodiesel from babassu oil was produced because it is non-edible and has a different composition than canola oil. Then, fuels were prepared that were mixtures of diesel oil and biodiesel containing from 10 to 40% (v/v) BBuE or RME (B10, B20, B30, and B40).Tests were conducted on selected physicochemical properties of the obtained fuels. “B” fuels prepared with BBuE and DF were shown to have more favorable fuel properties than those obtained from RME and DF. Fuels that are blends of BBuE and DF have slightly higher heating values, higher cetane number values, a more favorable distillation curve, lower dynamic viscosity values as a function of temperature, and marginally lower flash point values compared to the corresponding blends of RME and DF. Esters with shorter molecules have been shown to have more favorable fuel properties.

Climate changes caused by the greenhouse effect make it necessary to look for new sources of energy. One of them is waste of a biological origin. They are often difficult to dispose of and such a process can be expensive. Increasingly, they are used to produce biofuels that can replace petroleum-based fuels. They are also an alternative to food-based biofuels. The aim of the work was to propose a method of using fatty waste generated in a plant dealing with tanning animal skins and to evaluate the properties of the produced biofuels. The authors decided to use this waste to produce biodiesel. A patented reactor and technology developed by one of the co-authors was used for this purpose. Two alcohols, butyl and methyl, were used to produce esters in the transesterification process. Animal fats butyl esters (AFBE) and animal fats methyl esters (AFME) have been produced. A high efficiency of the transesterification process was obtained. It amounted to 99.2 (wt.%) for AFME and 98.9 (wt.%) for AFBE. The physicochemical properties of AFBE and AFME biodiesels, diesel fuel, and mixtures of these biodiesels and diesel fuel were tested. Most of the tested properties of AFBE were more favourable than those of AFME. The produced AFBE in relation to AFME was characterized by better cetane number, heat of combustion and calorific value, density, dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, and flash point. For example, the kinematic viscosity for AFBE was 3.6 mm²/s and for AFME 4.1 mm²/s. In contrast, the calorific value of AFBE biodiesel was 39.2 MJ/kg, and that of AFME biodiesel was 38.4 MJ/kg. The use of butanol from the point of view of the properties of the produced biodiesel turned out to be more advantageous in relation to methanol. Due to the fact that the production uses waste fat, the produced biodiesels can be regarded as second-generation biofuels. Producing biodiesel from waste is a way to utilize waste and is beneficial in terms of environmental protection. It can be a way to increase the share of biofuels in the energy balance of regions where large amounts of fat waste products of animal origin are available.

The use of biofuels to power compression–ignition engines makes it possible to reduce emissions of certain harmful components of exhaust gases. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of second-generation biofuels on the course of indicator graphs and heat release characteristics of the Perkins 1104D-44TA compression–ignition engine. For comparative purposes, the same tests were carried out by feeding the engine with first-generation biofuel and diesel fuel. Babassu butyl esters (BBuE) were used as the second-generation biofuel. The second fuel was a first-generation biofuel—rapeseed oil methyl esters (RME). Analysis of the results made it possible to draw conclusions about the effect of using 2nd and 1st generation biofuels on the parameters of the combustion process. When the DF engine was powered, the lowest fuel dose per work cycle was obtained. In the case of RME and BBuE fuels, it depends on the engine load. For low loads, higher consumption is for RME, and for higher loads, fuel consumption for BBuE in-creases most often. This is due to the lower calorific value of the esters. The results of these tests indicate that feeding the engine with BBuE and RME fuel in most loads resulted in higher maximum combustion pressures compared to feeding the engine with DF which may be directly related to the higher cetane number of these fuels compared to DF and the oxygen content of these fuels. Feeding the engine with BBuE and RME esters compared to DF did not result in large differences in the maximum heat release rates HRmax. However, the values of the first and second maximum heat release rates x_1max and x_2max, in addition to the type of fuel, are strongly influenced by the operating conditions, especially the engine load. Analyzing the combustion angles of 5, 10, 50, and 90% of the fuel dose, it can be seen that feeding the engine with BBuE and RME esters for most measurement points results in faster combustion of the fuel dose compared to DF.

The use of biofuel is one method for limiting the harmful impact of diesel engines on the environment. It is also a way of gradually becoming less dependent on the depleting petroleum resources. New resources for producing biodiesel are currently being sought. The authors produced esters from animal fat waste, obtaining a fuel that can power diesel engines and identifying a way to utilise unnecessary waste. The animal fat methyl ester (AME) was produced using a reactor constructed for non-industrial ester production. The aim underlying this paper was to determine whether a diesel engine can be fuelled with AME biodiesel and to test this fuel’s impact on exhaust gas composition and fuel consumption. Fuelling a Perkins 1104D-44TA engine with AME biodiesel led to a reduction in the smoke opacity of the exhaust gas as well as in carbohydrate, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide concentrations. The carbon dioxide concentrations were similar for biodiesel and diesel fuel. Slight increases in nitrogen oxides concentrations and brake-specific fuel consumption were found for AMEs. An engine can be fuelled with AME biodiesel, but it is necessary to improve its low-temperature properties.

The paper presents the results of experimental tests of a FIAT MultiJet 1.3 SDE 90 KM engine equipped with the common rail system, running at full load operation at rotational speeds of n= 1000, 1750, 2000, 2500, 3000, 35000, 4000 and 4200 rpm, carried out on a dynamometer stand. During the tests, the engine was supplied with, respectively, diesel oil and rape oil fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and their mixtures: B20 (80% diesel oil and 20% FAME), B40 (60% diesel oil and 40% FAME), B60 (40% diesel oil and 60% FAME) and B80 (20% diesel oil and 80% FAME). The paper has assessed the effect of the additions of rape oil fatty acid methyl esters to diesel oil on the unit fuel consumption and the emission of harmful exhaust gas components: nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, particulates and carbon dioxide. The fuel consumption was measured using a AVL 730 Dynamic Fuel Consumption fuel dosimeter. The measurements of the concentrations of the above-mentioned harmful exhaust gas components were done with a MEXA-1600 DEGR analyzer manufactured by Horiba, while particulate emissions were measured with a MEXA-1230PM analyzer by Horiba.

In the near future, natural gas may become a fuel, which will see increased use in powering internal combustion engines. Due to its properties, it can be used to power spark-ignition engines without major obstacles. Yet using natural gas to power compression-ignition engines proves to be more difficult. One of the possibilities are the dual-fuel compression-ignition engines running with gas fuel and diesel fuel, enabling ignition through compression and combustion of gas fuel. The article presents the heat release characteristics of the Perkins 1104D-E44TA engine powered by compressed natural gas and diesel fuel. Characteristics of heat release are an image of the combustion process. They affect the engine performance indicators. The determined heat release characteristics for a dual-fuel-powered engine were compared with the heat release characteristics for a diesel engine under the same operating conditions. An analysis of heat release characteristics was carried in the scope of their influence on the concentration of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust of the tested engine. The effect of the relative amount of heat released and the heat release rate during the combustion process in the Perkins 1104D-E44TA engine cylinder running dual-fuel with CNG+diesel on the concentration of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust, as compared to the values measured when running with diesel fuel only, was demonstrated. Higher share of natural gas in the total amount of energy supplied to the engine cylinders results in greater differences in the course of the combustion process and result in a greater reduction in the concentration of nitrogen oxides in the exhaust of the tested engine.