Diane Coyle

Suggested citation Coyle, D. (2026). The business of business is relationships: the implications of generative AI for organisational intangibles. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.135682

The practice of public administration is confronted by an overwhelming volume of unstructured textual data, creating a critical bottleneck that challenges the capacity for timely, evidence-based policymaking. While large language models (LLMs) offer a powerful solution, the academic and policy discourse on AI governance has primarily focused on the risks associated with quantitative, predictive models, leaving the governance of LLMs, which involve qualitative, interpretive analysis, critically underexplored. This article provides a systematic and empirical answer to this challenge. We evaluate four distinct archetypes for AI-assisted policy analysis: (1) traditional expert-driven analysis, (2) automated topic modelling, (3) human-in-the-loop LLM co-production (ChatGPT with prompting), and (4) institutional-scale API automation (ChatGPT via API), by applying them to a real-world corpus of 63 United Nations policy documents. Our results reveal the inherent trade-offs of each archetype in terms of analytical speed, cost, contextual depth, and the requisite level of human oversight, finding that the human-in-the-loop model offers the most effective balance. We conclude by presenting a durable framework to guide public institutions in making a strategic, evidence-based choice of analytical workflow, ensuring the adoption of AI strengthens, rather than erodes, the integrity of democratic governance.

This chapter critically examines the UK Treasury’s approach to performance budgeting, revealing a persistent emphasis on input control at the expense of strategic resource allocation and public value. Despite rhetorical commitments to managerial autonomy and outcome-based budgeting, successive reforms have reinforced centralized oversight, constraining financial flexibility and operational innovation. Drawing on case studies in prisons, homelessness, and special educational needs, the chapter illustrates how cost-cutting measures and fragmented governance have led to inefficiencies, diminished service quality, and systemic short-termism. The Treasury’s reluctance to integrate performance data into budgetary decisions has undermined resilience and strategic capacity across delivery chains. While initiatives like Public Service Agreements and the Public Value Framework offered potential for reform, they were either abandoned or poorly embedded. The chapter concludes that without a shift towards outcome-orientated budgeting and genuine subsidiarity, performance budgeting risks becoming a compliance tool rather than a driver of public value.

This chapter critically examines the UK’s accountability framework for public spending, arguing that traditional upwards-facing mechanisms—anchored in the Gladstonian model and the British political tradition—are increasingly misaligned with the realities of fragmented governance. While the Treasury maintains control through the accounting officer system and Parliamentary oversight, this model fails to account for the complexity of modern delivery chains involving local authorities, arm’s-length bodies, and private providers. Drawing on case studies in SEND, prisons, and homelessness, the chapter reveals how opaque lines of accountability, unfunded mandates, and systemic under-control undermine value for money and public trust. It highlights the tension between financial conformance and effective service delivery, showing how risk aversion and blame displacement stifle innovation and responsiveness. The chapter concludes that meaningful reform requires a shift towards downwards-facing, citizen-orientated accountability, challenging the centralized logic of the Westminster model and advocating for a more adaptive, transparent, and devolved system.

This chapter explores the institutional and political roots of short-termism in UK public spending, arguing that Treasury control mechanisms and broader governance traditions systematically undermine long-term investment and strategic planning. It identifies six drivers of short-termism: the British political tradition, Treasury culture, departmental silos, dominant economic paradigms, fiscal rules, and implementation gaps. These factors reinforce a bias towards short-term budgetary input control over long-term public value. The chapter critiques the Treasury’s reliance on tools like the Green Book and OBR scoring, which privilege quantifiable short-term returns and marginal cost–benefit analysis, often at the expense of human capital and regional equity. High staff turnover and weak institutional memory further entrench reactive decision-making. Politically, adversarial dynamics, ministerial churn, and media-driven announceables exacerbate instability. Drawing on case studies, the chapter shows how short-termism distorts spending priorities, impedes reform, and contributes to systemic inefficiencies—challenging the Treasury’s claim to strategic oversight and value-for-money stewardship.

This chapter examines the Treasury’s response to the fragmentation of UK governance over the past three decades, tracing its evolution from hierarchical control to a complex meta-governance role. It explores how New Public Management reforms—privatization, agency creation, and third-sector partnerships—have decentralized service delivery while paradoxically reinforcing central financial oversight. The chapter argues that the Treasury has struggled to adapt its control mechanisms to this fragmented landscape, contributing to short-termism, incoherence, and diminished public value. Through analysis of spending frameworks, contracting practices, and local governance dynamics, the chapter reveals how the Treasury’s reliance on traditional tools undermines its strategic capacity. It concludes by framing the UK as an ‘incoherent state’, where overlapping responsibilities, blurred accountability, and structural asymmetries challenge the Treasury’s ability to fulfil its meta-governance role effectively.

This chapter interrogates the myth of Treasury control by tracing its historical, institutional, and cultural foundations. It argues that while the Treasury is often portrayed as an omnipotent actor within the UK’s core executive, its power is more constrained, relational, and symbolic than commonly assumed. Anchored in the British political tradition (BPT) and the Westminster model, the Treasury’s authority is shaped by deeply embedded norms of centralized control, fiscal rectitude, and elite governance. The chapter explores how these traditions have legitimized Treasury dominance, even as governance has become increasingly fragmented. Drawing on archival sources and elite interviews, it reveals how Treasury control is sustained through cultural practices, institutional memory, and the reproduction of its own mythology. The chapter is structured to first unpack the BPT’s influence, then examine the evolution of Treasury authority, and finally present Treasury officials’ own perspectives—laying the groundwork for the empirical case studies that follow in Part II.