Elizabeth Oneita Davis

Demand for tiger Panthera tigris parts has contributed to a global decline in tiger populations. Tigers are extirpated entirely from Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, and extant populations in Southeast Asia are severely threatened. Across the region, tiger farms have been established for the principal purpose of supplying tigers for consumer demand (e.g. tiger bone glue for medicine). Tiger farms are known to operate within Vietnam and within Nghe An province, the focal area of this study. We interviewed 16 former tiger farmers to understand how they obtained their tigers, how and why they farmed tigers, why they stopped farming tigers and their beliefs around environmental policy, tiger conservation and tiger reintroduction. Tiger cubs were trafficked from Laos and raised by the tiger farmers to adulthood, at which point the tigers were sold to other individuals who slaughtered the tigers for their parts. We found that most of the farmers were aware that tigers are in decline globally and extinct from Vietnam. Farming was perceived as easy and lucrative; however, these farmers were no longer raising tigers because of fears of fines and jail time. The farmers were ambivalent about the current environmental policy around farming, but were supportive of reintroduction and stated their desire to see wild tigers in Vietnam again. Although tiger farms still operate in Nghe An, we find it heartening that proactive enforcement appears to be discouraging individuals from continuing to farm. Our study illustrates the importance of the government’s committment to executing policy as a driver of conservation impact.

Illegal demand for tiger product‐based medicine remains one of several key drivers contributing to the endangered status of tigers. In this study we investigate the use of tiger bone glue (TBG), which is used to treat a variety of ailments. Our objective was to understand how much of a threat TBG consumption might be in Vietnam, with the aim of using this information to inform conservation management efforts. We used a semi‐structured questionnaire and found that the use of TBG is a sensitive topic, probably due to its known illegality. Using the nominative technique, we found the estimated use of TBG within the last 12 months to be relatively low, at 6.9%. A higher level of use of Western medicine decreased the probability an individual had ever used TBG. From the qualitative results, we found a stated motivation of taking TBG to improve health, and according to the suggestion of one's social group. We suggest efforts to reduce TBG use focus on reducing the acceptability of TBG as a medicine, and encouraging non‐animal‐based medicinal alternatives. We also suggest the Government of Vietnam should continue its efforts to decrease accessibility to TBG by shutting down tiger farms. Both of these strategies should improve global practitioners' ability to safeguard wild populations.

Bear bile is a highly demanded medicinal product in certain areas of Vietnam, which contributes to the decline of Asiatic black bears and sun bears. Multiple conservation strategies, such as closing bear farms and raising awareness, have been enacted in Vietnam to address this issue, but there have been few targeted demand reduction efforts. Here, we present the design and evaluation of a campaign to reduce demand for bear bile, founded on the principles of conservation marketing. We used a Theory of Change informed by baseline consumer research and consultations with international and local stakeholders to guide the design of the campaign. We used quantitative surveys to measure the prevalence of bear bile use in a Before-After-Control-Treatment (BACT) design (n = 1,690 individuals (pre-campaign: 767; post-campaign: 923)). Bear bile use declined by 97% in our treatment site (from 16% (CI: 12 – 19%) to 1% (CI: 0.3 – 2%)), and did not change significantly in the control site. We can conclude that our campaign did change behavior, and reduced demand for bear bile in our target community. We also found a significant shift to disagreement for the belief “Bears are easy to find in the wild”, indicating that accurate knowledge about bear population decline in Vietnam increased in the treatment site. Our results illustrate the conservation potential of demand reduction campaigns, particularly when paired with efforts to decrease the available supply of wildlife products.

Demand for tiger parts has contributed to a global decline in tiger populations. Tigers are extirpated entirely from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, and are severely threatened in extant populations in Southeast Asia. Across the region, tiger farms have been established with the main intent of supplying tigers for consumer demand, e.g. tiger bone glue for medicine. Tiger farms are known to operate within Vietnam and within Nghe An province, the focal area of this study. We interviewed 16 former tiger farmers to understand how they obtained their tigers, how they farmed tigers, why they farmed tigers, why they stopped farming tigers, and their beliefs around environmental policy, tiger conservation, and tiger reintroduction. Tiger cubs were trafficked in from Laos and raised by the tiger farmers to adulthood, at which point the tigers were sold to other individuals who slaughtered the tigers for their parts. We found that most of our sample were aware that tigers are in decline globally, and extinct from Vietnam. Farming was perceived as “easy” and lucrative; however, our sample were no longer raising tigers due to fears of fines and jail time. Our sample were ambivalent about the current environmental policy around farming, but were supportive of reintroduction and stated their desire to see tigers in Vietnam again. While tiger farms do still operate in Nghe An, we find it heartening that proactive enforcement appears to be discouraging individuals to continue farming. Our study illustrates the importance of government commitment to policy in driving conservation impact.

The unsustainable consumption of bear bile for traditional medicinal purposes threatens bear populations across Southeast Asia. We designed, implemented and evaluated a behavior change intervention promoting biochemical medicine as an alternative to bear bile, grounded in iterative consumer research, stakeholder consultation and social marketing principles. The campaign was implemented across several regions of Cambodia, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health’s National Centre for Health Promotion. Using a Before-After Control-Impact (BACI) study design and specialized questioning techniques, we assessed changes in consumer behavior across campaign and comparison sites. Likelihood ratio and parametric bootstrap tests applied to Bayesian regression models showed no statistically significant effect of the campaign. While bear bile consumption halved in campaign sites, there was also a decrease in comparison sites. An opposite but parallel trend was observed regarding trust in biochemical medicine, which increased, but across both comparison and campaign sites. Trust in biochemical medical practitioners significantly increased as a result of our campaign. However, campaign implementation was severely delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic following baseline data collection which may also have made the impact of the campaign harder to detect. Our findings highlight the challenges and complexities of measuring the impact of demand reduction efforts to reduce demand for wildlife products.

The illegal wildlife trade is a major cause of global diversity loss. In Southeast Asia and particularly in Việt Nam, the consumption of wildlife products is mostly driven by demand for food and traditional medicine products. One key example of this in Việt Nam is the use of bear bile. While bear bile is one of the most well‐researched illegal wildlife products in Việt Nam, the complexity of consumer motivations within social groups continues to be poorly understood. In this study, we use mixed social science approaches to understand social influence on the consumption of bear bile through gift‐giving practices in Hà Nội, the capital of Việt Nam, and in Nghê An, a province in north central Việt Nam. The study provides a deeper understanding of how bear bile is given and consumed, and updates current information on bear bile usage. The majority of our interviewees had given or received bear bile, with the most common occasion for gift‐giving being during visits between intimate social circles of family and friends. Reasons for giving bear bile within these networks included illnesses, gratitude, drinking among males and ulterior motives. These findings illustrate the importance of one's social group in encouraging the transmission of a behaviour. If bear bile demand reduction campaigns target influential members of a network (often older individuals), and successfully change the behaviour of even one individual, this can have a cascading effect within the chain by neutralizing the behaviours of those influenced by the individual. This may be more effective than attempting to shift the social norms of the broader community. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Tigers are endangered due to numerous drivers, including illegal demand. In this study we investigate the use of tiger bone glue (TBG), which is used to treat a variety of ailments, including bone and joint ailments. We focused on an area in Vietnam with high levels of wildlife farming and consumption of other wildlife products. Our objective was to understand how much of an emerging threat TBG consumption might be, with the aim of using this information to inform demand reduction and other conservation management efforts if consumption was high. We used a semi-structured (i.e. quantitative and qualitative) questionnaire with a specialized questioning technique (nominative technique), designed to overcome possible deceit when answering. We found that the use of TBG is a sensitive topic, probably due to its known illegality. We found the estimated use of TBG within the last twelve months to be relatively low, at 6.9% prevalence in our sample. Certain predictors, such as a higher-level of use of Western medicine, decreased the probability an individual had ever used TBG. We also found possible evidence for the “rarity effect”, where a predictor of purchasing TBG was knowing tigers are extinct in Vietnam. From the qualitative results, we found a stated motivation of taking TBG when Western medicine was perceived to fail, specifically for bone and joint pain. We suggest efforts to reduce TBG use focus on improving medical care, such as increasing non-animal-based alternative therapies (e.g. physical therapy). We also suggest the Government of Vietnam should continue its efforts to decrease accessibility to TBG by shutting down tiger farms. Both of these strategies should improve global practitioners’ ability to safeguard wild populations.

Unsustainable harvesting of orchid species is a critical, global threat to orchid diversity and abundance, fueled by domestic and global demand. However, drivers of demand continue to be under‐explored, despite opportunities for proactive engagement and/or behavior change strategies with and/or directed at orchid collectors. In this study, we surveyed self‐identified Vietnamese orchid collectors, some of whom were also known to engage in wild harvesting of endangered species, to understand sociological dimensions including motivations, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and conservation ethos. We found that knowledge about domestic and international regulations was low, and that orchid collectors were likely to believe that Vietnam has plenty of orchids left in the wild. Orchid collectors were highly willing to share their expertise and collections with international NGOs, and receive advice on propagation of orchid species. Through Bayesian logistic regression, we found no statistically significant influence of demographic attributes on the behavior of harvesting from the wild; however, having access to propagation equipment and supplies increased the likelihood of wild harvest. Accurate knowledge (awareness) is a key first step in the behavior change process. We suggest the implementation of awareness‐raising campaigns targeted at Vietnamese orchid collectors, which communicate domestic and international restrictions about orchid harvest and trade, as well as the known status of orchid species in the wild. Additionally, we suggest that an opportunity exists to recruit Vietnamese orchid collectors into a formal network for knowledge‐sharing and the co‐creation of sustainable guidelines around keeping and propagating orchids.Abstract in Vietnamese is available with online material.

Biodiversity is in crisis in Vietnam due to persistent issues including food insecurity and demand for wildlife. Some existing conservation practices, such as preservationist forest protection models, have been shown to be ineffective, and forest-adjacent communities continue to be excluded from conservation decision-making, despite these communities’ potential to be powerful drivers of change. We conducted focus group discussions with minority ethnic group communities in north-central Vietnam, in the Nghe An Biodiversity Preserve. We discussed community perspectives on hunting wildlife and existing conservation processes, and ideas for improving livelihoods and safeguarding biodiversity. We found that all communities relied on hunting and harvesting wildlife for basic sustenance, but wanted to see wildlife stabilize and increase in their area. Across discussions, community members wanted to be able to participate and given a voice in conservation efforts. We suggest a first step in the NABP be the inclusion of community representatives in conservation management.

Wildlife populations continue to decline across the Eastern Mekong Biodiversity Hotspot of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Pervasive and unsustainable hunting has been identified as a significant driver of this conservation challenge. Previous research has argued that hunting persists in the region due to the income hunters derive from selling wildlife, with poor enforcement as a contributing factor. Here, we use an exploratory, ethnographic approach of detailed semi-structured interviews to understand the complex motivations and influences that drove and continue to drive forest-adjacent individuals and communities to hunt in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. We found that hunters across the three sites were not motivated to hunt by the income received from wildlife, even in the past. Instead, one motivation for hunting, which to our knowledge has not been directly reported elsewhere, was for social enjoyment with friends. Hunting motivated by subsistence needs is challenging to address due to convergence with issues around agency and poverty, but hunting motivated by a social reason may be more easily targeted through behavior change initiatives. We suggest such initiatives may also be likely to resonate due to hunters being in support of stricter policies to limit hunting, across sites. Hunters in Cambodia and Laos also suggested supplying alternative livelihoods to limit still on-going subsistence hunting. Reliance on enforcement efforts alone is not sufficient, per other research which has shown continued decline in wildlife at our study sites in these countries. We conclude by advocating for greater engagement with and by forest-adjacent communities to increase agency and ensure local insights and ideas are incorporated into conservation planning, and impactful conservation initiatives.