Andrea Carvajal

BACKGROUND: A hybrid biocatalytic–adsorptive material was developed by immobilising Trametes versicolor laccase (EC 1.10.3.2; benzenediol:oxygen oxidoreductase) onto acid‐functionalised granular activated carbon (Lac‐GAC) for the removal of acetaminophen (APH), ibuprofen (IBU) and oxytetracycline (OTC) under environmentally relevant conditions. RESULTS: In single‐component systems, adsorption followed Langmuir isotherm and pseudo‐second‐order kinetics, with maximum capacities exceeding 100 mg g ⁻¹ (R ² > 0.98). In binary systems, antagonistic effects were observed for APH–IBU and APH–OTC mixtures, whereas OTC exhibited synergistic behaviour in the IBU–OTC system. Hydrolysis of OTC (45–66% contribution) was quantified and corrected in adsorption calculations. The Lac‐GAC hybrid exhibited a sequential adsorption–biodegradation mechanism. Although intrinsic adsorption capacity was lower than pristine GAC due to partial occupation of surface sites (protein loading 0.0078 mg mg ⁻¹ ; immobilisation yield 78.2%), pollutant elimination increased by nearly 100% after 72 h relative to the adsorption‐driven removal of Lac‐GAC, indicating enzymatic contribution. CONCLUSION: The Lac‐GAC system integrates adsorption and catalytic oxidation under neutral conditions, providing sustained time‐dependent removal performance. The results clarify the interaction between competitive adsorption and enzymatic degradation in hybrid carbon–laccase systems. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) includes agricultural residues, crop wastes, and food wastes that are ubiquitously present and can be used as renewable resources to generate bioenergy or biofuels. Still, direct utilization of LCB to produce biofuel is not an easy task due to the recalcitrance property of LCB. The pretreatment strategy is an important step in a biorefinery to reduce biomass recalcitrance and to use it for bioenergy including value-added product generation. Microwave irradiation is procuring interest regarding LCB and waste material pretreatment over time before moving to biological transformation to biofuels. The coupling of microwave heating with water has made it the most effective treatment for biomass valorization to generate biofuel and other value-added products, turning it into the most cost-effective and eco-friendly approach. Despite its numerous advantages, scaling up microwave pretreatment from laboratory experiments to industrial applications faces several challenges. These limitations become significant hurdles in scaling up. As a result, it is necessary to focus research on cost evaluations and life cycle assessment (LCA) studies for commercialization that will benefit the bioeconomy and the environment. This review discusses microwave-assisted pretreatment significance in valorizing LCB for biofuel generation including the cost evaluation and LCA studies that have the most important role in commercializing the microwave-assisted pretreatment from lab scale to industrial scale.

BACKGROUND: Lignocellulosic residue valorization is a relevant topic because the study of residue and waste recycling is essential for circular economy development. This area is focused on treatment development for value‐added compound production. This work presents a sequential process of solid‐state fermentation (SSF) by white‐rot fungi (WRF) followed by solid substrate anaerobic digestion (SSAD) with the objective of producing bioenergy and other ancillary product. The agricultural residue from common bean pod (Phaseolus vulgaris) has never been studied for the purpose of a biorefinery concept. In addition, the intermediate stage for enzyme recovery was evaluated, comparing two extractants on their enzyme stability and effectiveness effect and the subsequence SSAD process effect.RESULTS: Trametes versicolor produced the highest enzymatic activity of laccase, reaching 1588 U L⁻¹ at 12 days of SSF. Under this condition, both extractants showed excellent enzymatic stability at 17 °C, but only the enzymes recovered with phosphate buffer were capable of the micropollutant degradation. SSF caused an increase in biodegradability of the lignocellulosic residue, providing an increase in biogas yield between 0% and 75.5%; however, high volatile solids consumption during fungal growth decreased the amount of biogas per volatile solid mass before treatment.CONCLUSION: Common bean pods were successfully valorized through the sequential process by SSF of the WRF T. versicolor and SSAD, producing enzymes as a value‐added product and biogas from the remaining solids. The enzymes produced were stable and effective for micropollutant degradation when they were recovered with phosphate buffer. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).