Genevieve A. C. Phillips

The Convention on Biological Diversity’s ambitious target to “effectively conserve” 30% of the world’s oceans in protected areas by 2030 risks being undermined by a primary focus on total area protected rather than realized conservation outcomes. Area-based assessments can overstate success because few marine protected areas (MPAs) possess strong restrictions and high compliance. Here, we estimate the extent that conservation outcomes are realized across the global MPA network for shallow reefs using standardized fish survey data. We first compare observed fish biomass from 552 surveyed MPA zones in temperate and tropical seas to modeled counterfactuals in the absence of protection, then extend these findings across the global network using key MPA attributes and predictive models. We estimate that at best, a quarter of the global MPA network is likely delivering meaningful conservation outcomes, with effectiveness strongly contingent upon the level of compliance with fishing restrictions. If shallow reef responses are representative of other marine ecosystems, then <2% of the ocean is effectively protected, compared to 9.8% presently reported. The unsupported assumption that MPA designation and management attributes directly translates to tangible biodiversity outcomes has apparently resulted in pervasive overestimation of conservation achievement. Critically, long-term success of MPAs will require further research, informed governance, and improved strategic policies that focus on the intricate mechanisms underlying compliance with mandated area restrictions.

Marine crustacean capture fisheries have been contributing increasingly to global aquatic food production in recent decades, helping secure socioeconomic benefits. During 2000–2022 the total landings of marine crustaceans rose by ~ 6.7% on average while expanding spatially and taxonomically, doubling their contribution to global fisheries landings. Although efforts to improve the data collection that informs stock assessments and management decisions have risen to promote sustainability of these fisheries, many stocks remain data-limited and unassessed. Among assessed stocks, while some continue experiencing excessive fishing pressures and remain depleted, fishing pressures have declined for most. Here we review recent progress made to stock assessment methods and management measures applied to data-limited and -rich stocks across the globe with particular emphasis on addressing sources of uncertainty. Although an increasing number of assessment methods have been developed to account for various types of uncertainty, evaluation of these methods applied to crustaceans is still limited. Less than one-fifth of the recent assessments accounted for multiple uncertainties using flexible methods like integrated models. However, uncertainties associated with crustaceans’ unique biology were not fully accounted for in estimating key demographic parameters in many assessments. Our review also identifies areas of research to address remaining knowledge gaps, including uncertainties associated with spatial stock structure and dynamic ecosystem processes, and management implications of accounting for uncertainties. We recommend efforts to develop integrated methods robust to assumptions and uncertainties in a range of data situations be prioritized to better inform the management of crustacean fisheries under ongoing environmental change. Graphical abstract

Well-designed and managed marine protected areas (MPAs) can have positive outcomes for reef biodiversity, but their effectiveness for conservation outcomes is also influenced by local environmental and anthropogenic factors. To assess the importance of local factors on MPA effectiveness, we compared field-collected data on total reef fish biomass from 922 sites inside and outside a network of 49 MPAs across temperate Australia using modelled predictions of biomass based on local biogenic habitat, physical environment and anthropogenic factors. We found fish biomass was 34% greater in fully protected MPAs in temperate Australia than predicted if they were openly fished, whereas biomass in partially protected MPAs was equivalent to fished sites. Local biogenic habitat and physical environmental features significantly shaped shallow reef biomass across large spatial scales but their effects did not differ between fished and fully protected MPA sites, providing reassurance that regional habitat change inside and outside MPAs will not greatly affect relative effect sizes. These findings affirm the role of fishing in shaping fish biomass on shallow reefs across broad spatial scales and underscore the importance of strict protection from fishing. Strategic MPA design and management should consider local conditions to refine expectations, optimize fish biomass recovery and enhance conservation outcomes.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are an important tool in helping to protect biodiversity in the oceans. Recent ratification of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) has ensured that globally we are committed to effectively protecting 30% of the world’s oceans by 2030, in MPAs. In Australia there is considerable interest in the potential benefits that partially protected areas (PPAs) may provide. However, a consistent definition of a PPA is currently lacking, and urgently needed to conduct quantitative analyses of PPAs. We conducted a systematic literature review to understand the current knowledge surrounding PPAs and their potential benefits. We define a PPA, characterise PPA implementation in Australia, and present results for the outcomes of PPAs in terms of ecological, economic, and social indicators. Our review suggests that although 45% of Australia’s marine environment is within MPAs, 61% of MPAs provide only partial protection. The Northern Territory (100%), New South Wales (81%), and Queensland (79.8%) have the highest percentage of MPAs that are partially protected, compared to Tasmania which has the smallest percentage of partially protected MPAs (13.12%). Tasmania also has the smallest percentage cover of MPAs (6.49% state waters). Most PPA management plans did not contain quantifiable Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to be able to effectively monitor the progress of these PPAs against the stated outcomes. We find the benefits of PPAs to be ambiguous: PPAs generally provide benefits when compared to ‘open’ ocean, however this is not a consistent result. There are no PPAs that provide greater overall benefits when compared to fully protected MPAs. Only one state (South Australia) and the Commonwealth (Australian Marine Parks) are collecting publicly available baseline data to facilitate quantitative monitoring of PPAs. Contrary to fisheries management, there were no plans of action if the declared MPAs and PPAs failed to meet their declared objectives and goals. Some PPAs within Australia appear to be incompatible with conservation priorities according to the recent “MPA Guide” classification framework. This study highlights the need for clearer management rationale and plans for PPAs in Australia, as these comprise the majority of MPAs in Australia’s Exclusive Economic Zone.

Background: There is global pressure to protect more of the world’s oceans, primarily to protect biodiversity, and to fulfill the “30 by 30” goal set by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) that has recently been ratified under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the fifteenth Conference of Parties (COP-15). Fully protected marine protected areas (MPAs) provide the highest level of protection for biodiversity from destructive or extractive practices and may limit access to the area itself. Fully protected MPAs (also commonly referred to as ‘no-take MPAs’) ban all fishing activities, thereby removing the realisation of direct economic and social benefits from resource extraction within these areas. However, fully protected MPAs can still act as source of productivity to surrounding areas, while also providing an important scientific reference role for off-reserve management thereby providing indirect economic and social outcomes, as well as biodiversity benefits. Sustainable marine resource management strives to achieve ‘triple-bottom line’ benefits, where economic, social, and biodiversity benefits are maximised in managed areas of the ocean. Implementing ‘partially protected’ areas (PPAs) in areas of high biodiversity value (i.e., inshore, productive areas of the ocean) that allow for some extractive activities, may allow us to supplement fully MPAs to meet IUCN conservation goals, while maximising social and economic benefits. However, our current understanding lacks explicit quantitative assessments of whether and how PPAs can benefit (or otherwise) biodiversity, while also providing economic and social benefits. This study provides a method to systematically review the scientific and legislative literature to understand how PPAs may contribute to conserving biodiversity while also providing social and economic benefits to Australia. Methods and expected outputs: The implementation of partially protected areas (PPAs) requires careful consideration of many potentially competing factors, and an understanding of the types of partial protection already in place in a region. We have developed a systematic literature review protocol focussing on the primary research question: “What is the current state of partially protected area (PPA) implementation across Australian marine areas?”. The aim of the review is to provide marine resource managers with a comprehensive overview of PPAs in Australia, including associated goals and stated management strategies to achieve these goals, and a methodological approach that may be utilised globally. The review protocol was designed by the research team for a Fisheries Resource and Development Corporation (FRDC) strategic research grant and will seek input from a project steering committee for the project on aggregation of the initial results. The steering committee is made up of stakeholders from a wide range of backgrounds and interests, covering marine conservation, fisheries management, Indigenous values, and academic research in Australia. Multiple academic databases, alongside Australian Federal, State, and Territory legislation and related policies will be reviewed using Boolean keyword search strings for both academic databases and relevant grey literature. Results from eligible documents will be compiled and insights from the review collated to provide information on the status of PPA implementation in Australia.

Scientific careers and publishing have radically changed in recent decades creating an increasingly competitive environment for early career scientists (ECS). The lack of quantitative data available on ECS in marine and fisheries sciences prevents direct assessment of the consequences of increased competitiveness. We assessed the contributions of ECS (up to 6 years post first publication) to the field using an indirect approach by investigating the authorships of peer-reviewed articles. We analysed 118461 papers published by 184561 authors in the top 20 marine and fisheries sciences journals over the years 1991–2020. We identified a positive long-term trend in the proportion of scientific articles (co-)authored by ECS. This suggests a growing contribution by ECS to publications in the field. However, the mean proportion of ECS (co-)authors within one publication declined significantly over the study period. Subsequent tests demonstrated that articles with ECS (co-)authors receive fewer citations and that the proportion of ECS (co-)authors on an article has a significant negative effect on the number of citations. We discuss the potential causes of these inequalities and urge systematic support to ECS to achieve more balanced opportunities for funding and publishing between ECS and senior scientists.

Animals use disruptive colouration to prevent detection or recognition by potential predators or prey. Highly contrasting elements within colour patterns, including vertical or horizontal bars, are thought to be effective at distracting attention away from body form and reducing detection likelihood. However, it is unclear whether such patterns need to be a good match to the spatial characteristics of the background to gain cryptic benefits. We tested this hypothesis using the iconic vertically barred humbug damselfish, Dascyllus aruanus (Linneaus 1758), a small reef fish that lives among the finger-like projections of branching coral colonies. Using behavioural experiments, we demonstrated that the spatial frequency of the humbug pattern does not need to exactly match the spatial frequency of the coral background to reduce the likelihood of being attacked by two typical reef fish predators: slingjaw wrasse, Epibulus insidiator (Pallas 1770), and coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus (Lacépède 1802). Indeed, backgrounds with a slightly higher spatial frequency than the humbug body pattern provided more protection from predation than well-matched backgrounds. These results were consistent for both predator species, despite differences in their mode of foraging and visual acuity, which was measured using anatomical techniques. We also showed that a slight mismatch in the orientation of the vertical bars did not increase the chances of detection. However, the likelihood of attack did increase significantly when the bars were perpendicular to the background. Our results provide evidence that fish camouflage is more complex than it initially appears, with likely many factors influencing the detection likelihood of prey by relevant predators.

Coral reefs are one of the most spectrally diverse environments, both in terms of habitat and animal color. Species identity, sex, and camouflage are drivers of the phenotypic diversity seen in coral reef fishes, but how the phenotypic diversity is reflected in the genotype remains to be answered. The labrids are a large, polyphyletic family of coral reef fishes that display a diverse range of colors, including developmental color morphs and extensive behavioral ecologies. Here, we assess the opsin sequence and expression diversity among labrids from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. We found that labrids express a diverse palette of visual opsins, with gene duplications in both RH2 and LWS genes. The majority of opsins expressed were within the mid-to-long wavelength sensitive classes (RH2 and LWS). Three of the labrid species expressed SWS1 (ultra-violet sensitive) opsins with the majority expressing the violet-sensitive SWS2B gene and none expressing SWS2A. We used knowledge about spectral tuning sites to calculate approximate spectral sensitivities (λ_max) for individual species’ visual pigments, which corresponded well with previously published λ_max values for closely related species (SWS1: 356–370 nm; SWS2B: 421–451 nm; RH2B: 452–492 nm; RH2A: 516–528 nm; LWS1: 554–555 nm; LWS2: 561–562 nm). In contrast to the phenotypic diversity displayed via color patterns and feeding ecology, there was little amino acid diversity within the known opsin sequence tuning sites. However, gene duplications and differential expression provide alternative mechanisms for tuning visual pigments, resulting in variable visual sensitivities among labrid species.

Many small fish on coral reefs have body patterns that are likely to provide visual concealment from predators: either by matching an aspect of the background (background matching); or disguising their body outline (disruptive colouration). Conversely, conspicuous body patterns are often used to advertise the presence of an organism: this is useful in both sexual selection, territoriality or when advertising distastefulness or toxicity (aposematism). Nudibranchs are opisthobranch molluscs that display a range of highly contrasting and apparently conspicuous body patterns that likely advertise their toxicity to potential predators. The majority of studies into animal body patterns have quantified body patterns based on the spectral contrast of an animal and that of the background; however the contrast of other pattern components such as spatial frequency and luminance have largely been ignored. Moreover, few studies have also incorporated modelling the target and background through the eyes of ecologically relevant predators; an important component of visual ecology studies into the function of body patterns. In this study we investigated the cryptic potential of a variety of prey body patterns, from the perspective of several reef predators (fish, crustacean and human). We measured the spatial frequency contrast of the prey body pattern and that of the background, using data about the predators’ visual systems. Behavioural tests were used to determine how the spatial frequency contrast between prey and the background affects predation likelihood (Fig.1). Using image statistics, retinal wholemounts and visual modelling, we show that predator visual systems are a key selection pressure in the evolution of coral reef prey body patterns.