James Russo

Mathematical games are widely used in primary classrooms and consistently associated with high student engagement, yet evidence for their effects on mathematical learning remains inconclusive. This study examines whether differences in teacher framing, conceptual versus procedural, are associated with differences in students’ mathematical experiences during game-based lessons. While prior research has documented how teacher framing shapes teacher-student interactions during gameplay, this study extends this work by examining the student side of the equation: how framing is associated with students’ affect, their perceptions of what they are learning, and the quality of their spontaneous mathematical reasoning with peers. Drawing on student-written reflections (n = 95), student interviews, and video-recorded student-to-student interactions (n = 20 focal students) across five Year 3/4 classrooms in Victoria, Australia, the study uses directed content analysis and interaction coding to examine students’ affect, perceived mathematical learning, and student-to-student mathematical reasoning across two framing conditions. Findings indicate that framing shaped not only how much students enjoyed the games but what they believed they were learning and how they reasoned with peers. Among positive-reason responses, challenge and thinking were cited more often in conceptually than procedurally framed classrooms (34% vs. 11%). Among neutral or negative responses that included a codable reason, boredom or confusion was less common in conceptually than procedurally framed classrooms (30% vs. 72%). Students in conceptually framed classrooms also described the mathematics in richer conceptual terms, referring to factors and prime numbers (18% vs. 1%) and arrays (18% vs. 5%). Mathematical reasoning interactions were approximately 1.7 times as frequent in conceptually framed classrooms, with Connecting interactions, in which students explicitly linked gameplay to broader mathematical ideas, occurring more than six times as frequently as in procedurally framed classrooms. Conceptual framing also appeared to distribute productive challenge more equitably across the class. The findings suggest that teacher framing may function as a key mediating variable between game design and student learning, with implications for professional learning and game-based pedagogy. Findings are exploratory and best understood as generating hypotheses for more controlled future investigation.

The Getting Ready in Numeracy (GRIN) program is a targeted intervention designed to support students struggling with mathematics by preparing them for upcoming lessons through small-group tutoring. This study examined changes in students’ attitudes towards mathematics (enjoyment, coping, valuing), students’ views on mathematics as a problem-solving discipline (mathematics as solving open problems flexibly), and descriptive norm-referenced achievement data to contextualise students’ learning trajectories, following participation in the GRIN program. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 102 primary and secondary students across 14 schools in Victoria, Australia. Quantitative measures, including pre- and post-program surveys, were analysed alongside qualitative data from open-ended student responses. Quantitative findings indicated significant improvements in students’ coping ability and their valuing of mathematics, and an increased tendency to view mathematics as flexible problem-solving; however, improvements in enjoyment did not reach statistical significance. Descriptive norm-referenced data indicated movement toward year-level expectations. Moreover, qualitative analysis revealed that the aspects students viewed as most helpful for their learning (e.g., social context) aligned with the program’s underlying design principles. These results highlight the potential of well-structured preparatory interventions like GRIN to support more positive student attitudes towards mathematics and greater engagement with the subject. Viewed through an equity lens, the findings suggest that strengthening students’ affective readiness and participation in mathematics may support more equitable classroom experiences.

Mathematical games are widely used in primary mathematics classrooms internationally, yet there remains limited conceptual clarity about what features define a mathematical game, and whether teachers' understandings align with definitions articulated in the research literature. This study examined how primary teachers across Australia (n=193), Indonesia (n=225), and Italy (n=107) prioritised eight characteristics commonly used in the literature to define mathematical games. Using an anonymous online questionnaire, descriptive analysis revealed strong overall alignment between teachers' judgements and the research-articulated definition. At least 90% of teachers in each country rated enjoyment, clear rules, explicit mathematical objectives, player choice, and interactivity as at least somewhat important. However, teachers weighted characteristics unevenly: enjoyment was consistently the most strongly prioritised feature, functioning less as one criterion among many and more as a threshold condition for whether an activity counts as a game at all. In contrast, features tied to mathematical integrity, particularly the expectation that mathematical knowledge should meaningfully shape gameplay outcomes, were endorsed less consistently, especially among Italian teachers—24% of whom rated this as very important compared with 62% and 61% of Australian and Indonesian teachers respectively. These findings highlight productive tensions between affective engagement and mathematical rigour in how teachers conceptualise games.

1. Mathematics is often described as a gatekeeper to future academic and career opportunities (Douglas & Attewell, 2017), yet many students struggle to engage meaningfully with the subject (Lein et...

This study examines teachers’ perspectives on implementing challenging mathematics tasks in the early years of schooling (Foundation– Year 2), focusing on beliefs regarding frequency, timing, and enabling conditions, as well as affective outcomes for teachers and students. Findings are drawn from 82 teachers across 16 schools who completed a research-informed professional learning program, which focused on teaching with challenging tasks in the early primary years. Mathematical Sequences of Learning (MSoL) provided sequenced task resources and pedagogical support for structured inquiry. Following participation in MSoL, a substantial majority of teachers advocated introducing challenging tasks from Foundation, with three-quarters recommending their use multiple times per week. Collaborative planning and leadership support were identified as critical enablers. Quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant increases in teacher confidence and enjoyment when teaching mathematics, alongside a significant decrease in teacher anxiety. Teachers also reported perceived improvements in student enjoyment and confidence. Teachers’ qualitative reflections, used narratively to contextualise the quantitative findings, pointed to how specific lesson characteristics and task features supported both engagement and emotional safety. In particular, collaborative classroom norms and variation across sequences of tasks helped to sustain motivation while reducing apprehension. The findings suggest that structured professional learning, when combined with high-quality resources and school-based supports, can shape affective outcomes in mathematics education and promote broader pedagogical change. These results underscore the potential of a challenging tasks approach to enhance teaching and learning in the early years, while questioning assumptions that such pedagogies are only suitable for older or higher-achieving students, or that it is necessary to start all lessons with teachers telling.

1. Mathematical games have long been featured in primary classrooms and are valued for motivating students, providing repeated practice, and inviting strategic thinking (Russo et al., 2021). Howeve...

Fostering motivation and engagement in mathematics requires learning conditions that support students’ autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Self-Determination Theory [SDT] (Ryan & Deci, 2017) provides a valuable framework for understanding how these psychological needs shape students’ experiences of learning mathematics. This paper explores how SDT can inform the design of optimal learning conditions in primary school mathematics education, particularly in contexts where students engage with cognitively demanding tasks. We present a conceptual model for structuring learning experiences that enhance internalized motivation, persistence, and positive mathematical dispositions. To illustrate how instructional choices can shape students’ self-determined learning, we examine the Exploring Mathematical Sequences of Connected, Cumulative and Challenging Tasks [EMC ³ ] project (Sullivan et al., 2020) as a case study of structured inquiry pedagogies aligned with SDT principles implemented within an early primary context (Foundation to Year 2). Our analysis highlights how specific instructional design choices—including scaffolding challenge, supporting autonomy, and fostering collaboration—can optimize learning conditions for primary school students. This paper contributes to both mathematics education and motivation research by offering a framework for designing instructional experiences that support self-determined learning in primary school mathematics.

This study was designed to report on the questioning strategies and pedagogical moves a Year 1 teacher used during a lesson, specifically focusing on using student work samples to support mathematical reasoning. The single-case research approach considered questions selected by the teacher, their distribution throughout the lesson, and the implementation of anticipated questions. The results show how the teacher leveraged student work samples as they responded to an open-ended problem (a challenging task) and how she employed pedagogical moves to support students’ mathematical reasoning. A qualitative analysis of classroom discussions provided insights and recommendations for pedagogical moves for facilitating, eliciting, responding to and extending student reasoning. We also offer a practical Questioning Move model teachers can refer to when helping students interpret tasks; supporting those who may struggle; clarifying misconceptions or partial conceptions and supporting understanding; exploring multiple strategies, identifying all possible solutions and extending responses, ensuring all learners have opportunities to develop their reasoning skills.