John A. Litvaitis

Public lands alone are insufficient to address the needs of most at-risk wildlife species in the U.S. As a result, a variety of voluntary incentive programs have emerged to recruit private landowners into conservation efforts that restore and manage the habitats needed by specific species. We review the role of one such effort, Working Lands for Wildlife (WLFW), initiated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service in partnership with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Using two at-risk species in the eastern U.S. (where private lands dominate), we show the substantial potential that WLFW has for restoring and maintaining needed habitats. Monitoring how effective these efforts are on populations of the target species has been challenging, and both monitoring and implementation are being modified in response to new information. Identifying landowner motivations is essential for developing long-term relationships and conservation success. As WLFW projects develop, they are moving toward a more holistic ecosystem approach, within which the conservation goals of at-risk species are embedded.

By the early 2000s, Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) were nearly extirpated in Lithuania. To determine their status, we used snow-track counts in 2006–2012 and volunteer monitoring in 1999–2005 and 2015–2018. Using simple questionnaires, we collected incidental observations from hunters, foresters, and other interested citizens to estimate lynx distribution, abundance and extent of breeding. Citizen scientists provided 206 reports of 278 individual lynx that suggested expanding lynx distributions in central, western, southwestern, and southern parts of Lithuania. A decrease in range fragmentation has also been observed since 2015. Nationwide, the lynx population quadrupled from 2010 to 162 individuals in 2018. The number of breeding individuals reported was just seven in both 2007 and 2008, limited to two forests in the very north and central part of the country. This increased to 46 in 2015–2018. Our results indicate that the lynx population in Lithuania has increased and its conservation status should be reconsidered.

We examined the abundance and species richness of bees at 10 sites managed for Sylvilagus transitionalis (New England Cottontail Rabbit) in southeastern New Hampshire. In 2015, we sampled bees using a streamlined bee-monitoring protocol (SBMP) developed for rapid assessment of bee communities, and in 2015 and 2016, we employed bee bowls (modified pan traps) painted fluorescent blue, yellow, or white and filled and with soapy water that were intended to mimic flower colors and attract bees. We compared the abundance of all species combined and species richness among management treatments (clearcuts, old fields, and gravel pits), patch area, and time since management action. We also compared the combined captures from bee bowls to relative abundance indices from the SBMP, as well as flower abundance and richness. Neither captured bee abundance nor species richness differed among management treatments; however, by removing a possible outlier, both abundance and richness were greatest in gravel pits ...

Efforts to retain ecological connectivity have become a conservation priority to permit animal movements within home ranges, allow dispersal between populations and provide opportunities for animals to respond to climate change. We used expert‐opinion and empirically derived models to investigate landscape connectivity at two spatial scales among bobcats Lynx rufus in New Hampshire, USA. Paths of marked bobcats were compared to random movements in the context of program CircuitScape. At the local scale (within home ranges), the empirical model (based on observations and telemetry locations) performed better than the expert‐opinion model. At the regional scale (state of New Hampshire), both models identified urban development as a potential barrier; however, the models differed in predicting how specific natural features (e.g. mountains and large water bodies) and some roads affected bobcat movements. When compared with bobcat population structure based on genetic information, the expert‐opinion model overestimated the influence of roads. Alternatively, the empirical model overestimated the influence of snow. Our findings indicate that the empirically based resistance model was better at describing landscape‐scale effects, whereas the expert‐opinion model provided a good understanding of gene flow at a regional scale. As such, both models may be considered complementary. Bobcats were sensitive to disruptions imposed by habitat fragmentation and thus may be a suitable focal species for evaluating the consequences of land‐use changes on the regional suite of mesocarnivores.

We examined the utility of bobcat ( Lynx rufus ) detections by deer hunters in New Hampshire, USA, as an index of relative abundance. To validate the index, we compared the number of hunter outings that detected bobcats per 1,000 outings (hunting seasons 2009 through 2013) with a statewide model of habitat suitability after we partitioned both by wildlife management units (WMUs). We also compared annual hunter‐detection rates with tallies of road‐killed bobcats. The habitat‐suitability model and bobcat road mortalities were correlated with hunter‐survey indices. Linear and exponential trends in hunter‐detection rates of ±10%/year could be detected with power ≥99% over 5‐year periods. As a result, we believe that major changes in bobcat abundance could be detected by the hunter‐survey index. However, without information needed to calibrate the relationship between the index and bobcat populations (e.g., linear or exponential), it was not possible to estimate the extent of change in bobcat abundance by a specific change in detection rate. We consider hunter detections a useful approach to monitor bobcats if applied in concert with other indices (e.g., road‐kill tallies, trapper harvests, etc.) to obtain a reliable gauge of population trends. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Populations of taxa dependent on young forests and shrublands in the northeastern United States are declining in response to habitat loss and fragmentation. In particular, the reduction in distribution and abundance of the New England cottontail ( Sylvilagus transitionalis ; NECs) prompted consideration to list it as federally threatened or endangered. In response to those concerns, a range‐wide conservation strategy for NECs has been developed that includes managing >20,000 ha of thicket habitats. Although much is known about the habitat associations of NECs, there is no obvious approach for evaluating the suitability of sites managed for them. We developed a habitat suitability model that conservationists can use to monitor progress in generating and maintaining habitats for NECs. We relied on literature reviews, expert opinions, and field data to identify habitat features that can be measured and indexed and used in a simple model to rank patches of habitat on a scale of 0 (unsuitable) to 1 (high suitability). Important features included dense understory vegetation, summer forage, and the presence–absence of additional refuges (e.g., constructed brush piles). We used our model to rank 60 managed habitats and found general agreement with opinions of an expert panel. There are obvious advantages to using a habitat‐suitability model during efforts to restore populations of NECs: it provides a consistent approach for monitoring management actions, can be used to identify site‐specific limitations prior to releasing cottontails in vacant habitats, and can be used to track suitability over time and alert managers of potential habitat deficiencies. Our suitability model also can be modified to accommodate new information and changing conditions. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Heterodon platirhinos (Eastern Hognose Snake [EHS]) is a species of conservation concern in the northeastern United States. As an initial step toward potential restoration, we examined habitat associations of a peripheral population of EHS in New Hampshire. At the landscape scale, transmitter-equipped snakes were found most often in developed lands, followed by, in order of frequency, mixed forest, Pinus strobus/P. resinosa (Eastern White/ Red Pine) stands, and 7 other cover types. Within individual home ranges, snakes selected Tsuga canadensis (Eastern Hemlock) stands most often, followed by, in order of frequency, White/Red Pine stands, mixed forest, Fagus grandifolia/Quercus spp. (American Beech/ oak) stands, and 6 other cover types. Compared to random locations, microhabitat features at snake activity sites included higher ground-surface temperatures, closer proximity to wetlands, less canopy closure, and more abundant shrubs, ground debris, and rock cover. When combined with a previous study conducted in the same area, we found that cover-type associations (mesic forest) of this population differed from known affinities (open, xeric habitats) of EHS throughout much of its geographic distribution. Home ranges were also larger than those reported in most studies. We suspect our population persists because it occurs in a large parcel of land with limited human alteration and use. Habitat there is suitable but likely is not optimal. Such limitations should be considered when selecting sites to establish new populations of EHS in northern regions.

We are using bobcats (Lynx rufus) as a model organism to examine how roads affect the abundance, distribution, and genetic structure of a wide-ranging carnivore. First, we compared the distribution of bobcat-vehicle collisions to road density and then estimated collision probabilities for specific landscapes using a moving window with road-specific traffic volume. Next, we obtained incidental observations of bobcats from the public, camera-trap detections, and locations of bobcats equipped with GPS collars to examine habitat selection. These data were used to generate a cost-surface map to investigate potential barrier effects of roads. Finally, we have begun an examination of genetic structure of bobcat populations in relation to major road networks. Distribution of vehicle-killed bobcats was correlated with road density, especially state and interstate highways. Collision models suggested that some regions may function as demographic sinks. Simulated movements in the context of the cost-surface map indicated that some major roads may be barriers. These patterns were supported by the genetic structure of bobcats. The sharpest divisions among genetically distinct demes occurred along natural barriers (mountains and large lakes) and in road-dense regions. In conclusion, our study has demonstrated the utility of using bobcats as a model organism to understand the variety of threats that roads pose to a wide-ranging species. Bobcats may also be useful as one of a group of focal species while developing approaches to maintain existing connectivity or mitigate the negative effects of roads.

As a result of the increasing popularity of remotely triggered (trail) cameras among hunters, amateur naturalists, and field biologists, a large variety of equipment and technologies have become available. Among various models of cameras, such features as the size of detection zone, trigger speed, and sensitivity of infrared‐motion detector can influence performance, including animal detection rates. Variation in detection (or photographic) rates among cameras may be problematic in studies where several models of cameras are used, especially when performance differences are not incorporated in the study design. To evaluate this potential source of sampling bias, we conducted head‐to‐head field trials with 2 cameras (Cuddeback™ Capture IR and Reconyx™ HC 600 Hyperfire) that had substantially different attributes that can affect sampling efficiency. Among initial comparisons, we found that Reconyx cameras (large detection zone and high‐sensitivity motion detector) recorded approximately twice as many independent photographs as did the paired Cuddeback cameras. In subsequent trials, we reduced the sensitivity of the motion detector on the Reconyx cameras and positioned a wooden stake with bait in the center of the immediate detection zone of both cameras. These adjustments reduced performance differences between the 2 cameras. We recommend that biologists involved with research, inventory, or monitoring programs that rely on more than one model of trail camera consider a testing phase where they can evaluate and possibly adjust differences among cameras. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

Limiting the spread of invasive plants has become a high priority among natural resource managers. Yet in some regions, invasive plants are providing important habitat components to native animals that are at risk of local or regional extirpation. In these situations, removing invasive plants may decrease short-term survival of the at-risk taxa. At the same time, there may be a reluctance to expand invaded habitats to benefit at-risk species because such actions may increase the distribution of invasive plants. Such a dilemma can result in “management paralysis,” where no action is taken either to reduce invasive plants or to expand habitats for at-risk species. A pragmatic solution to this dilemma may be to develop an approach that considers site-specific circumstances. We constructed a “discussion tree” as a means of initiating conversations among various stakeholders involved with managing habitats in the northeastern USA to benefit several at-risk taxa, including New England cottontails (Sylvilagus transitionalis). Major components of this approach include recognition that expanding some invaded habitats may be essential to prevent extirpation of at-risk species, and the effective control of invasive plants is dependent on knowledge of the status of invasives on managed lands and within the surrounding landscape. By acknowledging that management of invasive plants is a complex issue without a single solution, we may be successful in limiting their spread while still addressing critical habitat needs.