Anna Gardocka-Jałowiec

The aim of the paper is to show selected threats to consumer’s identity resulting from the dynamic and ubiquitous development of artificial intelligence (AI) and the lack of legal regulations in the European Union on the example of Poland that would provide the protection of consumer’s identity and their economic decisions from the influence of AI. In the paper the following thesis is put forward: not only in Poland, but also in the European Union, legal regulations in force are insufficient to protect consumers from identity theft and manipulation of their market behaviors, especially when emotional AI techniques are applied. The research was conducted primarily based on the formal-dogmatic method, consisting in the linguistic and logical analysis of legal texts in force in Poland and the EU. Moreover, the course of the proposed considerations is based on the current and available literature on the subject, which, due to the diversity of approaches and research positions, implies reflection—asking further questions about consumer’s identity and its legal protection now and in the future.

Purpose | The aim of this article is to assess the feasibility and the degree of achievement of the European Union’s target of allocating 3% of GDP to research and development (R&D), based on a comparison of data from 2013 and 2023, as well as to identify three groups of countries – leaders (≥ 3%), contenders/aspirants (2–2.9%), and outsiders (<2%) – in terms of R&D expenditure among the Member States of the European Union and the United Kingdom. The discussion also attempts to indicate factors that facilitate or hinder the attainment of this target under diverse economic conditions. Research method | The analysis is based on the GERD/GDP (Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D) indicator published by Eurostat. The study covers all EU member states and the United Kingdom, which left the EU in 2020, but their 2023 data were included for comparative purposes. The research procedure comprised: (1) compiling GERD/GDP values for 2013 and 2023, (2) classifying countries into three groups based on 2023 data, and (3) analysing changes in ranking positions. Comparative analysis and trend analysis were applied. Results | In 2023, the 3% threshold was reached only by countries with advanced innovation-driven economies – Sweden, Belgium, Austria, Germany, and Finland. Compared to 2013, Belgium, Austria, and Germany moved up to the leaders’ group. The aspirants’ group included, among others, Denmark, Slovenia, the Netherlands, France, the Czech Republic, Estonia, and the United Kingdom. The largest group comprised outsiders, some of which – despite relatively high growth rates – remain trapped in a “low-expenditure trap” (< 2% of GDP). Originality / value / implications / recommendations | The 3% GDP target for R&D is achievable only for part of the EU and requires a differentiated approach, involving tailored pathways, intermediate targets, increased private-sector participation, better targeting of public support, and more effective use of EU funds. The analysis confirmed both research hypotheses: (H1) the 3% target is achievable mainly for countries with advanced innovation-driven economies; (H2) countries with low expenditure levels in 2013 recorded higher growth rates but did not exceed the 3% threshold by 2023.

Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie najważniejszych czynników konsumpcji leków w Polsce. Artykuł powstał na podstawie badań pierwotnych przeprowadzonych na próbie 428 respondentów w marcu i kwietniu 2020 roku w Polsce metodą ankiety internetowej. Zastosowano algorytm drzew klasyfikacyjnych w celu wyodrębnienia kategorii respondentów, którzy spożywali leki na receptę oraz leki dostępne bez recepty (over-the-counter - OTC). Ponadto zaproponowano regresję logistyczną do oceny zależności między przyjmowaniem leków a stanem zdrowia, zachowaniami prozdrowotnymi, wybranymi preferencjami w wyborach żywieniowych oraz cechami demograficznymi. W pracy zidentyfikowano czynniki związane ze stylem życia, które determinują poziom spożycia leków. Autorzy argumentują, że kobiety w wieku 55 lat i więcej znacznie zwiększają spożycie leków na receptę i bez recepty, aby zachować zdrowie i aktywny tryb życia. Co więcej, regularnie wykonują profilaktyczne badania laboratoryjne i uważnie czytają informacje na etykietach żywności przed zakupem produktów spożywczych. W tym przekrojowym badaniu twierdzimy, że kobiety przyjmują więcej leków, bardziej krytycznie podchodzą do swojego zdrowia i bardziej dbają o aktywne starzenie się. Nawet jeśli nie wskazują na problemy zdrowotne, 50% z nich nadal zażywa leki. Wśród mężczyzn 68% nie zgłasza dolegliwości zdrowotnych, a w tej grupie ponad 30% zażywa leki. Wydaje się, że mężczyźni w mniejszym stopniu łączą zażywanie leków ze zdrowiem i aktywnym starzeniem się. Badanie identyfikuje klasy respondentów, którzy konsumują leki na receptę. Są to osoby, które mają problemy zdrowotne i korzystają z profilaktyki zdrowotnej, wykonując regularne badania lekarskie. Im częściej wykonywane są badania lekarskie, tym więcej przyjmowanych jest leków. Grupa osób często spożywających leki bez recepty uważnie czyta informacje na etykietach żywności przed zakupem i systematycznie wykonuje profilaktyczne badania laboratoryjne. Generalnie konsumpcja zarówno leków na receptę, jak i leków OTC w Polsce wzrasta wraz z wiekiem respondentów. Problemy zdrowotne determinują konsumpcję leków wydawanych na receptę, podczas gdy płeć jest najważniejszym czynnikiem wpływającym na konsumpcję leków wydawanych bez recepty.

This chapter analyses the profile of the senior in the past and today. Its purpose is to show the demographic changes in Europe. It is in the Old Continent that the largest increase in the percentage of seniors in the population is recorded. An analysis of the structure of seniors aged 50 and older in 28 countries of the European Union was conducted between 2001 and 2021. Next, the emphasis is shifted from the demographic aspect to the multidimensionality of the concept of old age and senior. The review of the definitions, taking into account a varied spectrum of sciences, shows the complexity of the issues raised. An important issue is to consider the extent to which age should be a decisive factor in classifying as senior, if the intellectual abilities and psychophysical condition of modern 50+ representatives are sometimes favourable, sufficient, satisfactory, and correct. The analysis leads to presenting the needs of individual seniors, which are characteristic for this age, as well as for the times of digital transformation, and even to forecasting for the future. The needs of seniors have changed with the current civilisation leap and have set the direction for the development of the Silver Economy.

This chapter shows the financial condition of seniors and scale of, and trends in, the elderly employment in the EU-27 over the period from 2011 to 2021. The analysis of the financial well-being of seniors is carried out on the basis of: (1) mean equivalized annual disposable income; (2) material deprivation rate and at-risk-of-poverty-or-social-exclusion rate. The overview of trends in terms of labour market participation of people 65 years of age and more is based on (1) the level and growth rate of the elderly employment and (2) the status of employment and six economic activities with the highest numbers of older workers. To identify factors that affect the growth rate of the elderly employment in the EU-27 the decomposition of the growth rate due to the status in employment is applied. The analyses are based on available secondary data retrieved from Eurostat and ILOSTAT.

This chapter is to demonstrate the challenges related to free time of seniors (especially EU residents) in the 21st century. The starting point for the considerations was to explain the concept of free time and to specify its characteristics, functions, and ways of using it. The structure of the seniors’ time budget and leisure activities undertaken by this group were analysed (based on Eurostat data). Subsequently, one of the important forms of free time management, that is, tourism, was studied. First, the essence of tourist activity was discussed and the reasons for undertaking it in the autumn of life. Second, the functions of senior tourism were distinguished and data on the participation of seniors from EU countries in it were presented. Third, taking into account that the concept of active ageing is increasingly the participation in various types of courses, trainings, workshops, etc., the chapter defines the place of seniors in the process of lifelong learning. The tasks of the University of the Third Age (U3A) were systematized and the available data on the participation of European seniors in educational programmes were analysed. The conclusion emphasizes the heterogeneity of the silver head segment.

The fifth part of the study discusses the scale of digital exclusion of seniors in the EU. Exclusion essentially can be formulated by dividing the general public into two groups: with and without access to the internet and new digital technologies. However, the perception of this definition is largely influenced by the reasons behind the lack of access to the internet that leads to exclusion from the information society. The EU is facing a challenge that no human community has ever faced before. The coexistence of a long life of a population on the one hand and the diffusion of digital technologies on the other requires developing viable strategies, both economic and social.

The definition of “old” has evolved intensively over the years due to demographic changes, and the ageing population is one of the most frequently discussed issues in recent decades. The profile of the 21^st century senior is completely different from the senior in the second half of the 21st-century senior is completely different from the senior in the second half of the 20th century, not to mention earlier periods in history. As an increasing group of benefactors of human activity, they create demand for products and experiences. The system of goods and services that aims to leverage their purchasing potential and satisfy their consumption needs, including living, health, tourism, cultural, information, and communication needs, has been referred to as the so-called Silver Economy. The book reviews the phenomenon of ageing of the EU’s population over 50. It also presents a multidimensional view of the potential for the development of this group’s economic, social, medical, family, personal and technological demand in the early 21st century. The book analyses the market behaviour of seniors and argues that the Silver Economy will grow in importance and profitability every year in various areas, both public and private. This includes health, finance, employment, leisure and well-being, education, and the use of digital tools. This publication is recommended for policymakers and business players who are considering how to achieve economic development through the growing and changing demand of the ageing population. For the world is now facing a challenge that no community has ever faced before – the coexistence of a long-lived population on the one hand and the growing popularity of digital technologies on the other. Chapter 4 of this book is available for free in PDF format as Open Access from the individual product page at www.routledge.com. It has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license. The publication was financed by a subsidy for the University of Wroclaw, Funds for the “Excellence Initiative – Research University” program, a subsidy for the University of Bialystok and a grant from the Krakow University of Economics (057/ ZZE/2022/POT).

Health is a superior value in the life of a human being. It determines the way of life and affects both its quality and its length. It also determines the consumption process and lifestyle. A healthy person has the ability to perform all life functions, and at the same time derives full satisfaction from life. The longer one stays healthy, the better it affects the economy as they do not burden the healthcare system with treatment costs. It is an independent unit that does not require third-party support. In addition, it is an active consumer who generates demand. Therefore, the goal of each country is to create a healthy lifestyle that allows a longer life in good health. The purpose of this chapter is to analyse the health situation of Europe’s senior citizens and to identify the differences in health in various parts of Europe. The paper was based on subject literature sources and secondary research elicited from Eurostat databases.

The paper aims at presenting the quality of life in terms of the deepening population aging process conditioned (to a great extent) by the progressive convergence of technologies. The interdisciplinary, theoretical nature of the considerations is a voice in the discussion on the interpretation, place, and role of quality of life, with particular emphasis on the extension of human life as a consequence of medical development. The authors applied the descriptive analysis method to present the category of quality of life, the phenomenon of population aging, the specificity of technological changes, and selected issues in the field of demographic changes. Polish and foreign literature on the subject was the basis for the considerations. The theoretical aspect of the research is supplemented by the empirical part supported by available secondary data published by Eurostat and Statistics Poland (Główny Urząd Statystyczny). Poland has been in the top thirty demographically old countries in the world for many years. In 1967, it crossed the threshold of demographic old age, and in 1980 — the threshold of advanced demographic old age. The demographic forecasts of Statistics Poland indicate that the number of people in retirement age will increase, and in 2035, it will reach 26.7% of the population. The observed and forecasted decline in the total population and the growth in the number of people in the senior age lead to an increase in the demographic dependency ratio of the elderly. The convergence of technologies revealed in medicine creates a new perspective on the population aging process. Extending human life allows one to recognize that the quality of life becomes: 1. the most desirable result of all healthcare policies; 2. dependent on the change of the healthcare model, i.e., the transition from the dominant model of reactive and retrospective care to the desired proactive and prospective model.