Ludvík Valtr

Introduction: Anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) stabilize the body before voluntary movement. Although present early in life, their refinement continues into adolescence, especially during complex balance tasks. Aim: This study examined developmental differences in APA control between typically developing children (9–12 years) and young adults (19–25 years) during a self-initiated Can Placement Task (CPT). Methods: Thirty children and twenty-two adults performed the CPT while standing on one leg. The task was divided into five phases (quiet stance, stooping, can transfer, straightening up, stabilization). Center of pressure (COP) displacement and velocity in anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML) directions and vertical ground reaction force (GRF) on the can were measured using dual force platforms. Both discrete outcomes and Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) were analyzed. Results: No differences were observed in static balance (Phase I). In dynamic phases, adults showed larger backward COP shifts during stooping, higher normalized COP velocity, and reduced reliance on the can for support compared with children. Children exhibited slower COP adjustments and higher GRF on the can, indicating greater use of external support. SPM revealed group differences mainly during stooping and straightening phases. Adults’ faster COP control likely reflects efficient feedforward strategies, while children adopted more conservative, stability-oriented approaches. Conclusion: Children aged 9–12 years can generate APAs but remain less efficient in adapting them to task demands. Phase-specific and SPM analyses revealed subtle developmental differences not evident in static balance. The CPT provides a sensitive framework for assessing postural control and may guide age-appropriate clinical interventions.

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often exhibit different oculomotor behavior compared to their typically developing peers. Research shows that eye movement patterns can provide important information about attention mechanisms. While eye movements have been examined in various cognitive contexts, this study investigated their role in a task designed to assess their potential as indicators of attention functioning in children with ADHD. Specifically, we assessed tonic attention, attentional focus, and selective attention. Seventy participants aged 9–12 years with DSM-5 ADHD-I and ADHD-C types participated in our research. We then included the results of 57 participants in our study. We used the d2-R attention test and the Reaction alertness test to determine the specifics we were looking for. We used Eye Tracking Glasses (ETG) 2w to capture eye movements. The results show that quiet eye (QE) duration does not reliably predict visuomotor performance in this population. Our findings further suggest that in children with ADHD, the QE phase is not the primary period for acquiring visual information important for movement planning; rather, relevant information is gathered earlier in the process. Conversely, prolonged onset and duration of QE were associated with poorer attentional efficiency, suggesting that in ADHD, longer QE may reflect slower or less efficient cognitive processing rather than increased control.

The concept of gender stereotype is a well-established area of research in sports and social psychology. It has been suggested that the effect of negative gender stereotypes on motor performance may not be the same in two different cultures with varying levels of stereotype beliefs, however, no research explored this suggestion. The primary objective was to investigate the impact of negative gender stereotypes on motor performance. Two experiments, Experiment 1 (Exp. 1) conducted in Iran, a country with relatively strong stereotypical beliefs, and Experiment 2 (Exp. 2) conducted in the Czech Republic, a country with relatively less pronounced stereotypical beliefs, involved participants engaging in dart-throwing. In both experiments, motor performance and cognitive anxiety were assessed, while gaze behavior was additionally measured in Exp. 2 to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the impact of gender stereotypes on motor performance. The results of Exp. 1 showed that Iranian women in the stereotype condition exhibited lower dart-throwing performance and higher levels of cognitive anxiety, as compared with the neutral condition. Conversely, Exp. 2 demonstrated that among Czech women, there were no significant differences in dart-throwing performance, cognitive anxiety, or gaze behavior between the conditions. These findings were discussed within the cognitive and socio-cultural framework.

Effective postural control is essential for motor skill development, yet the specific nature of anticipatory control in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) remains poorly understood for complex or dynamic stability tasks. This study investigated anticipatory postural adjustments (APA) during a self-initiated dynamic stability task. The Can Placement Task (CPT)—a self-initiated dynamic stability task—was performed by 23 children with DCD and 30 typically developing (TD) children aged 9–12 years. The task involved standing on one leg while also repositioning a can on the floor. Center of pressure (COP) movement was recorded by two force platforms during the five phases of the movement. The ground reaction force measured external support during both descent to pick up the can and ascent after replacing the can. The study used a mixed-design approach with group (DCD, TD) as a between-subject factor and condition (can position close or far) and phase of movement as within-subject. Distinct movement control characteristics were shown for children with DCD including a greater range of COP movement and higher COP velocity in the anterior-posterior direction prior to movement initiation compared with TD. The DCD group also relied more on external support during both the downward and upward phases of the CPT and needed more trials to complete the task. Only two significant interaction effects involving Group and the within-subject factors emerged. Children with DCD swayed significantly more at specific phases of the task, especially when coming up and restoring balance, and did not adapt COP velocity as a function of reaching distance. Dynamic control of posture in children with DCD is impaired as they struggle to generate the effective APAs necessary to maintain dynamic stability which leads to greater reliance on external support and more corrective movements. The CPT provides a valuable assessment of posture and dynamic balance control during a complex prehension movement performed on one leg; the task highlights distinct movement patterns between children with and without DCD.

This study investigated the effects of quiet eye training (QET) on the neuropsychological functioning and fine motor performance of children with attention deficits. The participant cohort consisted of 106 children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) between the ages of 8 and 12 years. The children were assigned to either the QET group (n = 54) or the control group (n = 52). The QET group went through a 5-week intervention in which the performance of blocks of targeting tasks was preceded by watching split-screen video footage featuring the gaze and body movements of a skilled model performing a throwing motion. Both groups underwent pre-test and post-test assessments, which included the reaction test of alertness, go/no-go inhibition test, and motor performance series test. The QET group demonstrated significant improvements in attentional engagement, inhibitory control, and fine motor skills, which require precise and fast visuomotor coordination. These results highlight the potential benefits of QET intervention in ameliorating attention deficits and enhancing fine aiming motor skills in children with ADHD. However, task specificity was evident, indicating that the intervention effects were most pronounced for the hand fine motor aiming tasks requiring both precision and speed.

Based on linkage between attention control, gaze and visuomotor control, previous studies suggested that quiet eye training (QET) could improve attention control. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of QET-based visuomotor intervention on different aspects of attention in children with ADHD. Fifty seven children with ADHD aged 9-12 years, were tested on focused, tonic and phasic attention, as well as attention control during a throwing task analysed via eye tracking, in the pre-and post-test sessions, 6 weeks apart. The QET group that underwent the specific 5-week QET-based intervention significantly increased focused attention including its accuracy aspect. Reaction times (RT) and intraindividual RT variability in non-alert and alert conditions as measures of tonic and phasic attention did not change over time in either group. In contrast with the CON group, an extended total time of eye fixations during the pre-throw and throw phase was found in the QET group after the intervention. The study suggested that focused attention in children with ADHD can be improved by a short-term QET-based visuomotor intervention. Future research needs to examine the effects of longer QET-based intervention, or the intervention in combination with other cognitive training of attention.

This study aims to investigate sex-related differences in raw item scores on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition (MABC-2) in a large data set collected in different regions across the world, seeking to unravel whether there is an interaction effect between sex and the origin of the sample (European versus African). In this retrospective study, a secondary analysis was performed on anonymized data of 7654 children with a mean age of 8.6 (range 3 to 16; SD: 3.4), 50.0% of whom were boys. Since country-specific norms were not available for all samples, the raw scores per age band (AB) were used for analysis. Our results clearly show that in all age bands sex-related differences are present. In AB1 and AB2, girls score better on most manual dexterity and balance items, but not aiming and catching items, whereas in AB3 the differences seem to diminish. Especially in the European sample, girls outperform boys in manual dexterity and balance items, whereas in the African sample these differences are less marked. In conclusion, separate norms for boys and girls are needed in addition to separate norms for geographical regions.

Recent evidence suggests that one of the benefits of external focus is facilitating task focus. To this extent, an external focus might influence cognitive function. To help elucidate the underlying mechanisms of attentional focus instructions, the aim of this study was to examine the influence of attentional focus instructions on cognitive stability and task focus, as indicated by the number of eye blinks, during an interceptive timing task with children who are at a crucial stage of motor coordination development. Twenty-four children (M_age = 10.4 ± 0.9 years) performed a forehand drag shot with a floorball stick to hit a tennis ball at a target in each of three different attentional focus conditions: external focus “focus on the blade of the stick”, internal focus “focus on their hands”, and control (no focus instructions). A mobile eye tracker was used to record the number of eye blinks from the moment that the tennis ball was released by an experimenter from the top of a boccia ramp to the moment of the initial movement of the floorball stick. Results showed that the accuracy of hits was significantly better in the external focus relative to the internal focus condition. Also, the number of eye blinks was significantly lower in the external focus relative to the internal focus and control conditions. Findings suggest that improved cognitive stability and task focus may underlie the improved performance associated with an external focus in a visually demanding motor task in children.

The purpose of this study was to adapt the MABC-2 Checklist to Czech primary schools by examining of its content validity and feasibility. The content validity achieved the satisfactory level in the second round of panels of experts on child motor development. The evidence on feasibility was obtained from classroom teachers who described this tool as clear, objective and having logical structure and its administration as comprehensible and fast. The MABC-2 Checklist is applicable instrument for the Czech school environment, but its adaptation to various countries should consider the items representing the common motor skills in local children.