Diogo Santos Teixeira

Objective: The feeling scale (FS) and the felt arousal scale (FAS) are the most used instruments to assess affective valence and arousal, respectively. As such, this review aimed to analyze how the FS and/or the FAS have been used in continuous aerobic exercise. The primary focus was on the scales’ application, including timing, number, and frequency of assessment. As a secondary focus, information regarding the sample size calculations of the studies, the exercise intensity domain, and the identification of an affective rebound was also collected. Method: This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. An extensive literature search was conducted (last search, August 2023) across four databases (i.e., PubMed, SPORTDiscus, B-on, and PsycINFO) and four repositories (i.e., clinicaltrials.gov, WHO ICTRP, OSF.io, and SportRxiv). In total, fifty-three studies published between 1995 and 2023 were included in the qualitative analysis. Results: Results suggest that both scales can be used in continuous aerobic activities. Variations in time points, number, and frequency of measurements highlighted a high level of heterogeneity. The moderate intensity domain presented the highest scores on affective valence; additionally, an affective rebound was present in all intensities, and a delay in this rebound was detected in most domains. Conclusion: Improvement of the scales’ methodological and contextual application is needed to reduce heterogeneity and enhance the interpretation of the role of affective responses on exercise motivation and adherence.

The peak-and-end rule postulates that the most salient affective responses during exercise (i.e., most negative and/or positive peak) and the affect experienced at the end of a session (i.e., end affect) are associated with variables related to exercise adherence, such as enjoyment. However, this phenomenon remains considerably unexplored in resistance training (RT). This study aimed to explore the predictive value of the peak-and-end rule on the enjoyment levels in a commonly prescribed RT session. Experienced exercisers (N = 43) responded to the Feeling Scale (FS) after two aerobic exercise moments and six RT exercises. Individual and hierarchical regression analyses were applied to test the predictive value of the FS peaks and the FS end, as well as the FS slope and the FS mean. Results showed that the FS end was the only variable that consistently predicted enjoyment post- (15%) and 24 h after exercise (11%), while all variables predicted 24 h after enjoyment (7% to 15%). Overall, the peaks and end affect might be necessary for enjoyment promotion, but only the end affect presented consistent results. Future research should investigate the effect of the peak-and-end rule in RT on retrospective affective variables and objective exercise behaviour.

Fitness centers are privileged settings for promoting health; however, they are affected by high attrition rates and low attendance. At the same time, several motivational theories are considered relevant to improving behavior in exercise contexts, although they largely lack experimental evidence. Accordingly, the main objective of this study is to examine attendance trajectories following the implementation of two short training programs for exercise professionals, based on two theories of human behavior (self-determination theory and hedonic theory), with fitness center attendance patterns over time. As a secondary objective, the study will examine associations with attrition rates, motivational variables, and other behavioral outcomes. It is hypothesized that the theory-driven interventions will be associated with more favorable attendance trajectories and lower attrition than the control condition. This is a pre-registered, pragmatic, single-blind, controlled intervention study with three parallel arms, in which fitness clubs were randomly allocated across conditions. Professionals will receive brief training sessions according to their assigned condition throughout the intervention period. From September 2025 to August 2026, data on dropouts and training attendance among new clients will be collected. A subsample of exercisers will also be followed longitudinally to assess motivational outcomes. Primary outcomes will be attendance over one year; secondary outcomes will include attrition rate, motivation, intention to continue exercising, behavioral automaticity, subjective affective experience, and enjoyment. Improvements in attendance would reflect individual health gains, while reductions in attrition rates would enhance the financial sustainability of clubs. Moreover, the findings may provide preliminary evidence regarding the practical utility of translating these theoretical approaches into routine professional practice. Clinical trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov , identifier NCT07156240.

While functional mobility is known to deteriorate with age, the specific mechanisms driving this decline, along with potential differences between men and women, are not fully established. Therefore, the present study applied a moderated mediation framework to investigate whether lower limb strength and body mass index (BMI) mediate the relationship between aging and functional mobility, and to explore if sex acts as a moderator in these relationships. A cross-sectional design was used to evaluate 408 independent older adults (mean age: 71.9 ± 3.9 years; 273 females and 135 males). Assessments included the Timed Up and Go (TUG) for functional mobility, the 30 s Chair Stand for leg strength, alongside BMI calculations. Direct and indirect pathways were subsequently evaluated using a moderated mediation analysis. Lower limb strength and BMI significantly predicted functional mobility in both sexes (p < 0.05), with no significant moderation in the indirect pathways. Regarding conditional effects, advancing age predicted poorer functional mobility in females (p = 0.008) but not in males (p = 0.141), independent of the mediators. Strength and BMI appear to be correlates of functional mobility. However, since the age-by-sex interaction term was not statistically significant, the potential sex-specific direct effect of age must be interpreted with caution. While these findings hint at possible subtle differences in aging trajectories, future research is needed to confirm whether interventions for older women require addressing factors beyond strength and body composition.

Background: The athletic potential of young athletes is shaped by individual and environmental factors. Objectives: This study examines the physical growth, body composition, biological maturation, motivation, perseverance, physical performance and contextual factors of young male and female track and field athletes. Methods: A total of 425 (224 girls) track and field athletes were recruited and divided into five age cohorts (10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 years respectively). Measurements were assessed across (i) individual (anthropometry, body composition, biological maturation, motivation, and perseverance), (ii) performance (motor performance), and (iii) club context domains. Data analysis used descriptive statistics for clubs’ characteristics, a two-factor ANOVA for anthropometry, body composition, biological maturation, and performance and an ANCOVA for motivation and perseverance. All analyses used STATA 18.0. Results: Sex-related differences were identified in physical growth, maturation, psychological, and performance variables during adolescence. Girls reached their peak height velocity (PHV) around 12 years of age, compared to 14 years in boys. At all ages (except at age 11), girls had higher body fat, and at age 12 were taller and outperformed boys in right-handgrip strength and in sprint (30 m and 40 m). From age 13 years onwards, boys became taller, with greater leg length, greater fat-free mass, and superior results (p < 0.05) in most performance tests. Psychologically, girls reported higher levels of interest–enjoyment, effort–importance, relatedness, and perceived choice; no sex differences were found in perseverance. The clubs involved were of small size, with developing, yet qualified, coaches, with limited support staff and infrastructure. Conclusions: Clear sex differences in physical growth, psychological, and performance variables emerged during adolescence, and were related in part to earlier maturation in girls. Further, there was variation in clubs’ infrastructure and staff that may potentially influence track and field athletes’ growth and development.

Pleasurable affective responses are linked to sustained exercise behavior, positioning hedonic-based approaches as promising strategies to reduce physical inactivity. This ancillary study compared two individualized methods of exercise assessment, prescription, and supervision, standard (FITT) approach and a pleasure-oriented (FITT + AFFECT) approach, examining their effects on motivational and behavioral outcomes. Forty-six insufficiently active adults ( M _age = 32, SD = 8.62) were randomly assigned to either group and completed three supervised gym sessions over 2 weeks. The FITT group followed American College of Sports Medicine-aligned guidelines, whereas the FITT + AFFECT group received prescriptions tailored to promote pleasurable experiences through intensity preference/tolerance, self-selected intensity, and repeated affective monitoring. Intention to exercise, exercise-related habit, perceived choice, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, and subjective vitality were assessed and analyzed using descriptive statistics and analyses of variance. Both approaches improved motivational and behavioral outcomes, although without significant group-by-time interactions, suggesting that the previously observed increase in exercise frequency in the experimental group may operate through mechanisms beyond these constructs.

This paper presents the rationale and design of a study of growth and development in young track and field athletes: the EXcellence and PERformance in Track and field (EXPERT) study, and details the methodologies used. Background: Longitudinal research examining individual-environment interactions in youth athletic development is scarce for track and field. Objectives: The EXPERT study investigates how individual (anthropometry, maturation, motivation) and environmental (family, coach, club) characteristics influence developmental trajectories in youth track and field athletes. Methods: A mixed-longitudinal design will follow 400 athletes (200♂, 200♀; aged 10–14 years) from 40 Portuguese clubs across five cohorts assessed biannually over three years. Guided by Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, assessments encompass individual, performance, health, and environmental domains. Data quality control will consist of rigorous training of all research team members, implementation of standardized protocols, a pilot study, and an in-field reliability study. Multilevel growth models will examine trajectories and predictor effects of predictors. Conclusions: EXPERT will provide evidence to optimize training and support holistic youth athlete development.

Introduction and Objective. The study analyzed the training load in high-intensity interval training sessions with different conditions of recovery time between stimuli: fixed (1min.) and self-selected. Methods. Nineteen individuals participated in the study: 13 men and 6 women (19±1.0 years; 64.0±9.2 kg; 169±8.5 cm; 22.0±2 BMI). For the training load analysis, heart rate variability (LnRMSSD), perceived effort (PE), and mood scale BRUMS (MS) were used. LnRMSSD and MS were evaluated before and after the sessions. The PE was evaluated during each session immediately after each stimulus. The protocol was 10 x 30s (95% Vpeak) with active recovery (40% Vpeak) in fixed or self-selected time. ANOVA-RM (2 [interventions] x 2 [time points]) for LnRMSSD and MS and (2 [interventions] x 10 [time points]) for PE was used. Results. Between condition and time*condition, no differences were observed for LnRMSSD (p=.626; p=.879, respectively), PE (p=.191; p=.792, respectively), and MS (tension: p=.673; p=.463; depression: p=.867; p=.359; anger: p=.867; p=.359; vigor: p=.811; p=.778; fatigue: p=.144; p=.998; mental confusion: p=.828; p=.752, respectively). In terms of time, significant differences were observed in LnRMSSD (p<.001) and PE (1≠3-10; 2≠4-10; 3≠5-10; 4≠5-10; 5≠7-10; 6≠7-10; 7≠ 9,10; 8≠10, p<.001). In MS, there was a difference in domains of tension (p<.001), depression (p<.015), anger (p<.033), and mental confusion (p<.001). But not for vigor (p=.339) nor fatigue (p=.419), which are associated with the training load. Conclusions. However, both recovery conditions showed similar acute internal load responses. Additionally, it is suggested that recovery with self-selected time (46.70±1.6.58s) may be a recovery option in HIIT prescription.

Objective: Considering the absence of research testing the entire sequence of passion, behavioral regulation, and subjective well-being (SWB), this study aimed to analyze the hypothetical causal relationships between the variables of a model that integrates the Dualistic Passion Model (DMP) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) in order to understand the impact of harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP) and the regulation of motivation on the SWB of elite athletes with disability. Method: This study includes 143 elite athletes from national adapted sports (36 female; 107 male) aged between 15 and 59 (M = 29.21; SD = 10.45). Weekly training sessions ranged from 1 to 12 (M = 4.52; SD = 2.71), and the years of competitive practice ranged from 1 to 28 (M = 5.55; SD = 6.98). Data were collected using valid and reliable questionnaires for the study population and analyzed using structural equation analysis. The following results were identified: a positive and a significant effect between OP and self-determination motivation (SDM); a positive but not a significant effect between OP and non-self-determination motivation (NSDM); a significant effect between SDM and SWL and SDM and positive affect (PA); and, finally, a positive but non-significant effect between SDM and negative affect (NA). In contrast, there is a positive and significant effect between HP and SDM; a negative and significant effect between HP and NSDM; a positive but non-significant effect between NSDM and SWL; a negative and significant effect between NSDM and PA; and, finally, a positive and significant effect between NSDM and NA. Conclusions: The perception of passion regarding sport can be a positive predictor of SDM, which, in turn, can influence levels of SWB, both from a cognitive point of view (SWL) and from an emotional point of view (PA). This reinforces the positive effect of the self-determination behavior in adapted sport on SWB and its contribution to health and quality of life in people with disabilities.

Introduction: The main purpose of this study was to test a hierarchical model of motivation that integrates Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory to explain and predict exercise adherence. Method: In total, 2180 exercisers (1020 female, 1160 male) aged between 18 and 60 years, from different gyms and health clubs, completed several scales validated in exercise settings, regarding perceived motivational climate, basic psychological need satisfaction, behavioral regulation, and exercise adherence. For the last measure, weekly computer access to a control system over a 6-month period before and after data collection was consulted. Results: Through structural equation models (SEM), it was verified that (1) task-involving climate positively predicted basic psychological needs. In turn, the satisfaction of these needs predicted autonomous motivation, which led to a positive prediction of adherence; (2) a small variation in exercise adherence was explained by the motivational model under analysis. Nevertheless, models significantly improved their analytical power when past adherence was inserted in the model increasing the explained variance in future behavior from 9.2% to 64%. Conclusions: In conclusion, autonomous motivation can predict people’s exercise adherence, and past behavior increases that predictive effect. The present study brings scientific evidence to the popular saying “tell me what you’ve done and, and I’ll predict what you’ll do”.