Ingvar Svanberg

Background: Cloudberry, Rubus chamaemorus L. (Rosaceae), is traditionally harvested as food in northern Scandinavia. It is rich in vitamins C, A and E, and antioxidants. This berry has gained much cultural, economic, nutritional, social and symbolic importance in Sweden during the past century. Cloudberries are an important part of culinary heritage. Methodology: This qualitative diachronic study analyses historical data available in archives and published collections, fragmentary notes in literature and relevant modern data, using a historical ethnobiological approach. Results: Cloudberry is the third most important wild berry species gathered for human consumption in Sweden. The berries were earlier preserved in wooden barrels during the long circumpolar winter; now they are usually frozen or made into jam and other processed products and sold throughout the country. Difficult access to growth areas, weather fluctuations, timing of harvest and lack of gatherers make harvesting challenging. Commercial harvesting has gone from being a sideline income source for the northern peasants to engaging imported seasonal workers mainly from Southeast Asia. Conclusion: This historical overview reveals that local berry picking is decreasing in recent decades. Fluctuations in local weather and lack of foragers influence the availability of cloudberry on the market. In 2025, there were neither enough workers nor berries, and the prices of cloudberry products have risen steeply. The cloudberry, which has enjoyed several decades of popularity both in haute cuisine and among ordinary consumers, will perhaps return to a local wild food gathered only for household needs.

Background: Peasants in preindustrial Norway and Sweden refused to touch edible macrofungi even during times of scarcity or famines, although this free food resource was abundantly available and authorities encouraged gathering mushrooms to enrich the diet since the eighteenth century. Urbanization and gradual changes of attitudes have turned mushroom gathering in forests and meadows into an important leisure activity. In recent decades, city foragers have discovered the funnel chanterelle, Craterellus tubaeformis (Fr.) Quél. This delicious edible mushroom has quickly become one of the most popular species for hobby gatherers. Our article follows the journey of the funnel chanterelle from an ignored food resource to a popular seasonal delicacy served also in luxury restaurants, discussing how, when and why attitudes and habits have changed. Methodology: For the historical background, this qualitative ethnomycological study uses a rich corpus of newspapers in the Swedish and Norwegian newspaper databases at the Swedish and Norwegian National Libraries. Data on contemporary mushroom hunter knowledge of C. tubaeformis have been obtained from responses to a questionnaire from 2017 with a hundred respondents. The study has also benefited from the authors’ participatory observations, own experiences as mushroom gatherers, and conversations with mushroom pickers in Norway and Sweden. Cookery books, mushroom identification guides and other printed works have also been utilized. Results: Urbanization caused a change in the relationship with nature: urban foragers are a fairly new phenomenon in Sweden and Norway but they have significant impact on food habits. City foragers discovered and have focused extensively on the funnel chanterelle ever since the end of the 1970s. It is now one of the most popular edible mushrooms in Sweden and Norway, widely publicized in newspapers, discussed in evening classes for novice mushroom gatherers, and presented in books and TV and internet food shows. Media and in recent decades also internet can be identified as the main information sources for urban gatherers. Attitudes have changed among others due to transformations in lifestyle, internationalization, and the fashion of consuming more local foods, as well as a strong need for leisure and perceiving nature as the best place for it, and gathering as a meaningful activity in nature. Conclusions: The funnel chanterelle is easy to identify, harvest and prepare. It is regarded as wild food with a wide range of uses, harvested for both personal consumption and commercial purposes, and now well-integrated in the Nordic cuisine. The urban population perceives mushrooms and various other wild foods as a normal part of the diet and modern food, in contrast to their peasant ancestors who thought fungi were animal food only. Contemporary human-fungi relations in Scandinavia have multiple meanings, not only as a food source but also as a recreational activity, maintaining emotional ties to the forests and nature among a highly urbanized population.

Finnish North Karelia is a region with a rich cultural history of ethnomedicinal plant use, shaped by centuries of interactions among various ethnic groups. This study identified both similarities and divergences between local Finns, Karelians war refugees, and individuals of mixed origin compared to historical records. Based on 67 semi-structured interviews, we documented the use of 43 medicinal plant taxa from 25 families, of which 31 remain in use. Notably, the number of medicinal plants continuously used in North Karelia is considerably lower than in other parts of Europe, with less than 25% of historically utilised species still in practice, which reflects the fragile state of this knowledge. Factors such as forced relocation, the loss of traditional lands, and the need to adapt to new environments might have contributed to this decline. Another influencing factor is official healthcare attitudes, which have prompted Finnish residents to shift from traditional herbal remedies to modern medical practices. Understanding the circulation of ethnomedicinal knowledge and its transformation over time is essential for identifying pathways to revitalise these practices within the framework of modern healthcare systems and cultural revitalisation efforts.

Background: Folk biology commonly contains knowledge of many more taxa than those of immediate economic importance. Species with little or no practical use are, however, often overlooked by ethnobiological research. An example are a few Myxomycetes taxa which played an important role in the folk biology and beliefs of pre-industrial Sweden and adjacent Nordic countries, Denmark, Norway and Finland. Such organisms are not of less interest for the understanding of human-biota relationships; local knowledge about the entire biota in a given environment should therefore be studied to comprehend the full range of folk biology. Methodology: This qualitative study analyses and reviews historical data available in archives and published ethnographic collections as well as scattered and fragmentary notes in the literature using a historical ethnobiological approach. Results: Peasants in the Nordic countries recognized three taxa of myxomycetes. Scrambled egg slime, Fuligo septica (L.) F.H.Wigg., in particular attracted interest and is known by many local folk names. This slime had no practical value or use, yet it was well known in folk biology and associated with a supernatural malevolent being which in the shape of a hare or cat stole milk or butter on behalf of a witch. The belief in evil origins of slime became the cause of violent actions such as whipping and burning of the organism. Two other taxa, Lycogala epidendron (L.) Fr. and Mucilago crustacea F.H.Wigg., have also been observed in folk biology, but data on how they were perceived and treated is sparse. Conclusions: The sudden appearance of strange shapes and clear colours of myxomycetes in damp weather created both fear and curiosity; these odd organisms required explanations, interpretations and actions. Our example of the economically irrelevant myxomycetes in Sweden and nearby Nordic countries indicates that interpretations in pre-industrial societies of natural phenomena and various organisms, connections with beliefs and perceptions about the surrounding environment and the possible consequent actions should be studied alongside economic plants and animals in ethnobiological research, for a deeper understanding about folk biology and the multilayered and multidimensional relationships between humans and biota.

Black elder, Sambucus nigra, is a non-native but now partly naturalized shrub in Sweden; it has been cultivated here at least since the Middle Ages. Previously, this plant was associated with a supernatural being to whom sacrifices were made, and its fruits were used in folk medicine and wood for fuel and crafts. Traditional economic uses vanished with industrialization and urbanization and black elder was mostly planted as an ornamental shrub in urban parks. At the end of the 1970s, however, it made a sudden comeback: city dwellers started to gather flowers to make a refreshing non-alcoholic cordial. This diachronic study of Sambucus nigra spanning over a millennium reflects various attitudes and uses within the context of a changing human society. In addition to the simple but popular cordial, side dishes and desserts made of its fragrant flowers are becoming increasingly popular in modern Swedish cuisine. Globally it has also been (re)discovered and the utilization of this plant is growing: its flowers are used to add flavor to soft drinks, salads, desserts and various dishes; berries are used for medicine and in cooking, especially with meats, and its future uses seem to be limited only by human imagination.

Background A few Myxomycetes taxa played an important role in the folk biology of pre-industrial Sweden and adjacent Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Finland) in northern Europe. Folk biology commonly contains knowledge of far more taxa than those of immediate economic importance. The species of little or no practical use are often overlooked by ethnobiological research, but these organisms are not of less interest for the understanding of human relationships with biota. Local knowledge about the entire biota in a given environment must therefore be studied to comprehend folk biology. Methodology This qualitative study analyses and reviews historical data available in archives and published ethnographic collections as well as scattered notes in literature using a historical ethnobiological approach. Results Peasants in the Nordic countries recognized three taxa of myxomycetes. Scrambled egg slime, Fuligo septica (L.) F.H.Wigg., attracted interest in particular and is known by many local folk names. Scrambled egg slime had no practical value, yet it was well known in folk biology and associated with a supernatural malevolent being in the shape of a hare or cat, which on behalf of a witch stole milk or butter. This belief caused violent actions such as whipping and burning of the organism. Two other taxa, Lycogala epidendron (L.) Fr. and Mucilago crustacea F.H.Wigg., have also been observed in folk biology, but data on how they were perceived is sparse. Conclusions The sudden appearance of strange shapes and clear colours of myxomycetes in damp weather created both fear and curiosity, and required explanations, interpretations and actions. Our example of the economically irrelevant myxomycetes in Sweden and nearby Nordic countries indicates that interpretations in pre-industrial societies of natural phenomena and various organisms, connections with beliefs and perceptions about the surrounding environment and possible consequent actions should be studied alongside economic plants and animals, providing a deeper understanding for the ethnobiological study of folk biology and highlighting the multidimensional relationships between humans and biota.

Local knowledge is an essential dimension of humanity's relationship with the environment. Investigating the interdependence between humans and wild birds holds value in fostering a mutually beneficial relationship with avian populations. Gathering bird eggs is a significant practice for Kihnu islanders in Estonia. There are very few studies of this age‐old, complex knowledge that assess the topic from the perspective of the local community. This paper investigates the reciprocity and the relationality between people and birds and the position of commons in the local community practice of bird semi‐domestication. Several methods (interviews, participant observation and literature study) were used in data collection. We obtained information on local knowledge concerning 58 bird taxa. Locals named at least 21 bird species from which they have collected eggs. While collecting eggs is a central activity, the relationship surrounding egg collection is far more intricate. Locals take care of nesting boxes in Common Merganser which birds reside, collecting only a few eggs from every box. These nesting boxes are also constructed for passerine birds. Furthermore, caring for birds influences the soundscape of Kihnu and significantly impacts the cultural bond between local communities and the birds. Kihnu islanders are mindful of the changes occurring in the bird population. The intimate relationship between local people and birds is challenged when traditional ways of life are restricted by stricter nature conservation norms (e.g. banning the collection of bird eggs and visiting islets). However, birdlife is very important in ensuring biocultural diversity. Therefore, this study proposes several important future perspectives in promoting the sustainable development of rural life: (1) the introduction of pluralistic nature protection, including the opinion of local communities in the management of natural resources; (2) the promotion of birds as a means of pest control; and (3) reinforcing the reciprocal coexistence of birds and humans on Kihnu. We advocate for community‐centred nature management which takes into consideration Local Ecological Knowledge and its attached expertise, shared responsibility and benefits, sustainable development trajectories and local community‐based governance systems. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Background: Most fisher-gatherer communities we know of utilized a limited number of natural resources for their livelihood. The Turkic-speaking Loptuq (exonym Loplik, Loplyk) in the Lower Tarim River basin, Taklamakan desert, Eastern Turkestan (Xinjiang), were no exception. Their habitat, the Lop Nor marsh and lake area, was surrounded by desert and very poor in plant species; the Loptuq had to make the most of a handful of available biological resources for housing, furniture, clothing and fabric, fishnets and traps, tools and other equipment. The taxa used by the Loptuq were documented by foreign explorers at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, prior to the forced resettlement of the group in the 1950s and subsequent destruction of their language, lifestyle and culture. Methods and sources: Ethnobiology explores the relationship between humans and their environment, including the use of biological resources for different purposes. In several aspects, historical ethnobiology is more challenging; it studies this relationship in the past and therefore cannot verify results with informants. As the present study discusses an extinct culture on the basis of literary and material sources, we apply a method called source pluralism. This approach allows the inclusion and combination of a wide range of data and materials, even scraps of information from various sources, with the aim to understand phenomena which are sparsely mentioned in historical records. Travel reports by Swedish, British, German, American and Russian explorers together with linguistic data provide the most important sources for understanding Loptuq interaction with the environment and its biota. Especially the large number of toponyms and phytonyms recorded by the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin and materials from his expeditions, including voucher specimens kept in Stockholm in the herbarium of the Swedish Natural History Museum, and objects of material culture in the collections of the Ethnographical Museum, are crucial for our analysis about local knowledge among the Loptuq. Illustrations and photographs provide us with additional information. Results: The question of how the Loptuq managed to survive at the fringe of a desert, a marsh and a lake which changed its location, intrigued all foreign visitors to the Lop Nor. The Loptuq’s main livelihood was fishing, hunting and gathering, and their material culture provided by plants and other organic materials included their usage, consumption and trade. Only a handful of species formed the basis of the Loptuq material culture, but they had learned to use these specific plants for a variety of purposes. The most important of these were Lop hemp, Poacynum pictum (Schrenk) Baill., the riparian tree Euphrates poplar, Populus euphratica Olivier, and the aquatic common reed, Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Several species of tamarisk were used for fuel and building fences. A few plants were also harvested for making foodstuffs such as snacks and potherbs. In addition, the Loptuq also used fur, bird skins, down, feathers, mammal bones and fish bones for their material needs. The habitat provided cultural ecological services such as motifs for their folklore, linguistic expressions and songs, and the Loptuq engaged in small-scale bartering of plant products and furs with itinerant traders, which ensured them with a supply of metal for making tools. Conclusion: This article discusses the now extinct Loptuq material culture as it existed more than a hundred years ago, and how the scarce biological resources of their desert and marsh habitat were utilized. Loptuq adaptation strategies to the environment and local knowledge, transmitted over generations, which contributed to their survival and subsistence, were closely connected with the use of biological resources. For this study, a comprehensive approach has been adopted for the complex relationships between human, biota and landscape. The Loptuq are today largely ignored or deleted from history for political reasons and are seldom, if at all, mentioned in modern sources about the Lop Nor area. Their experience and knowledge, however, could be useful today, in a period of rapid climate change, for others living in or at the fringe of expanding deserts.