Wugan Luo

The establishment of the Silk Road facilitated stable communication between the Central Plains and Xinjiang. A key unresolved issue in archaeometallurgy is how Central Plains cultural influence may have contributed to technological change in Xinjiang’s copper alloy systems. This paper analyzes copper-based wares excavated from Baiyanghe Cemetery in Fukang City, Xinjiang, China, using material microscopy, metallographic microscopy, SEM-EDS, LA-ICP-MS, and MC-ICP-MS. The results show both casting and forging techniques. Trace element and lead isotope data indicate copper and lead ore sources. Alloy technology continued Xinjiang’s tradition of pure copper and tin bronze but may also reflect the adoption of lead, a crucial Central Plains alloy component. Lead isotope data indicate that high-leaded bronzes mainly used lead ores from outside northern Xinjiang with multiple sources; some artifacts and raw materials may have been imported from the Central Plains. Tang Dynasty metallurgy retained Eastern Zhou copper resources while integrating new metal sources, further diversifying copper sources. From the Eastern Zhou to the Tang Dynasty, alloy technology and mineral sources at Baiyanghe Cemetery show increasing Central Plains-related influence, a pattern that may be associated with central administration of the Western Regions. This paper provides evidence suggesting extensive communication and interaction between ancient Xinjiang and the Central Plains through metallurgical archaeology.

Introduction: The willow-leaf-shaped sword is a distinctive indigenous weapon of the Bashu culture, used during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Despite initial archaeological investigations suggesting the custom of ‘Sword Emphasis’ in the Bashu culture, the unique characteristic of willow- leaf-shaped bronze swords compared to other weapons is still a question worth exploring. Methods: In this study, a portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer (p-XRF) and multi-receiver inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) were used to examine willow-leafshaped bronze swords unearthed from Shuangyuan Village Cemetery dating back to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Results: Our findings reveal that bronze swords found in the same burial are predominantly made by lead resources from the same geochemical province. This distinct pattern is exclusive to willow-leafshaped swords and remained unchanged from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle of the Warring States period, despite variations in form. Moreover, willow-leaf-shaped swords exhibit marked disparities from other weapons in terms of their origin, form, quantity, and function. Supporting literature further underscores the historical significance attributed to swords by Bashu's ancestors. The integration of scientific data and archaeological research embodies the cultural tradition of ‘Sword Emphasis,’ highlighting the distinctive status of willow-leaf-shaped swords within the Bashu culture, setting them apart from other weapons such as poleaxes, dagger-axes, and spears. Conclusion: This study represents the first attempt to correlate the trend of lead isotope concentration with a distinctive cultural phenomenon specific to ancient Bashu. The phenomenon that bronze swords found in the same burial predominantly with lead resources from the same geochemical province reveals the distinctive characteristic of swords compared to other weapons, which is closely correlated with the tradition of ‘Sword Emphasis’ in ancient Bashu.

Tin isotopes have become a valuable tracer for geological, archaeological and cosmochemical investigations because of their distinctive multi‐isotopic system of ten stable isotopes and their affinity for both sulfide and chalcophile phases. However, the refractory nature of cassiterite (SnO ₂ ) presents a major challenge for Sn isotope measurement, as its resistance to conventional acid digestion leads to prolonged, incomplete dissolution and problematic isotopic fractionation. Thus, this study presents a novel method for cassiterite dissolution employing the sealed Carius tube technique, with an evaluation of three acid systems: 11.6 mol l ^‐1 concentrated HCl, 7.6 mol l ^‐1 HBr, and 9.1 mol l ^‐1 HBr. A key finding is that complete removal of residual HBr via pre‐treatment is critical to avoid analytical interference. Applying this approach, the mean δ ^122/118 Sn _3161A for sample DL 16 was ‐0.04 ± 0.02‰ (2 s , n = 16). A 9.1 mol l ^‐1 HBr solution demonstrated the highest dissolution efficiency, achieving complete cassiterite breakdown about 700% faster than previous methods. δ ^122/118 Sn _3161A was consistent across the different acid systems and varying recovery rates, confirming minimal isotopic fractionation. Method validation using the cassiterite reference material #CAS 2 yielded δ ^122/118 Sn _3161A = 0.29 ± 0.06‰ (2 s , n = 4), in agreement with the certified reference value. The proposed method offers several advantages: (1) high recovery rates within short processing times; (2) complete dissolution of cassiterite; (3) negligible Sn isotopic fractionation. This protocol effectively overcomes key limitations of conventional approaches, such as incomplete dissolution, use of hazardous reagents, and potential isotopic bias, thereby establishing a reliable procedure for precise Sn isotope measurement in geochemical and planetary research.