Andrew George Thomas

Situationships are an emerging relationship type, yet quantitative research remains limited. Here we examined situationship characteristics and experiences, using sex and sociosexuality as theoretically relevant starting points for understanding individual variation. We conducted an exploratory, cross-sectional survey of 390 adults (68% women; M age = 27.41 years, SD = 8.66) from 48 countries who reported on current, or emotionally significant past, situationships. Participants endorsed proposed situationship characteristics and provided their own open-ended definitions which underwent structured content coding. These analyses informed a working definition of situationships as intimate, relationship-like connections lacking clarity about commitment, relationship status, or future trajectory. Although 56% of participants entered situationships hoping for a relationship, and 55% assumed sexual exclusivity, only 9% of reported past situationships progressed to a committed relationship. Compared with men, women more often emphasised ambiguity in their definitions, perceived greater long-term potential, and expressed stronger hopes for commitment. They also more strongly agreed that they would feel betrayed if their situationship partner saw other people. Relative to the reference sample, both sexes reported more unrestricted sociosexual behaviour, whereas women reported more restricted sociosexual attitudes. This pattern raises questions about incongruence between women’s sexual experiences and preferences, with potential implications for wellbeing. The observed sex differences also motivate future research to examine whether divergent mating goals between partners shape situationship experiences.Keywords: situationships, romantic relationships, sex differences, sociosexuality

The term “gender identity” is widely used. However, its meaning is often uncertain, ranging from a euphemism for sex to an “internal sense of gender,” or a combination of levels of masculinity/femininity and beliefs about one’s sex and presentation. Given differences and uncertainties in the definition of gender identity, this research assessed prevalences and determinants of belief and lack of belief in having a gender identity. Three samples from the UK ( N s = 302 and 300) and the US ( N = 301) (ages 18–87; mean age 45.74 (SD = 15.75), 431 males, 472 females), representative for national sex and age distributions, were recruited via the online platform Prolific. Participants were presented with 15 sets of questions. Each set included a factual biographic question (e.g., interest in sports), a question on presence or absence of an identity related to the biography question, and an importance rating of that identity if present. A response of ‘No’ to the question ‘Do you have a gender identity?’ was given by 23.6% and 21.1% of the UK samples, and 20.3% of the US sample. Gender identity was more likely to be affirmed by females (Odds Ratio = 1.79) and by those who hold strong critical social justice attitudes (OR = 1.67). Females gave higher ratings for the importance of their gender identity than did males (OR = 2.09). Future research should investigate the different understandings individuals have of the term gender identity and longitudinally assess societal changes in prevalence of belief or lack of belief in gender identity.

In their target article, Wahring et al. present compelling evidence that romantic relationships may matter more to men than women, but their explanations remain largely proximate. We offer alternative evolutionary interpretations of the observed sex differences in falling in love, breakup initiation, remarriage, and mortality outside of relationships. We argue that these patterns better reflect sex-differentiated mating strategies, social alliance formation, vulnerabilities to singlehood, and the greater importance of female survival for offspring survival and hence for their reproductive success.

Questions about ‘gender identity’ are frequently included in demographic and monitoring questionnaires and the term is used frequently in conversation and research. However, its meaning in often uncertain, ranging from a euphemism for sex to an ‘internal sense of gender’, or a combination of levels of masculinity/femininity and beliefs about one’s sex and presentation. Given differences and uncertainties in the definition of gender identity, this research assessed frequency and determinants of belief and lack of belief in having a gender identity. Three representative samples from the UK ( N = 302 & 300) and the US ( N = 301) (ages 18–87; 431 males, 472 females), recruited via Prolific, were presented with 15 sets of questions. Each set included a factual biographic question (e.g., interest in sports), a question on presence or absence of an identity related to the biography question, and an importance rating of that identity if present. A response of ‘No’ to the question ‘Do you have a gender identity?’ was given by 23.6% and 21.1% of the UK samples, and 20.3% of the US sample. Gender identity was more likely to be affirmed by females (OR = 1.97) and by those who hold strong critical social justice attitudes (OR = 1.33). Importance of one’s gender identity was rated more highly by females (OR = 1.97). Future research should investigate the different understandings individuals have of the term gender identity and longitudinally assess societal changes in incidence of belief or lack of belief in gender identity.

On average single individuals commonly report worse mental health outcomes than partnered individuals. With the population of single adults quickly growing it is important the mechanism that relates singlehood to worse mental health outcomes is better understood. We conducted a scoping review to summarise the literature on the relationship between singlehood and mental health, and to evaluate the extent to which ultimate level perspectives are included in the current research. Of the 181 papers, from the PsycINFO databases, included in this review the consistent finding was that single individuals reported worse mental health oucomes. An inductive thematic analysis of these sources was used to identify patterns within the literature, with four clusters of commonly associated data items reflecting different singlehood identities (Widowed & Lonely Women, Never-Partnered & Childless Women, Male Involuntary Singles and Low-Socioeconomic Status Single Parents). Similar mental health outcomes were found for single men and women but the factors influencing this relationship were sexually differentiated in ways consistent with evolutionary theory. Childlessness and age were found to be more important in the outcomes of single women, compared to sexual access and voluntariness of singlehood in the outcomes of single men. With only a small number of exceptions, the literature broadly ignores ultimate levels of analysis and evolutionary explanations for the negative impacts of singlehood and accompanying sex differences. We provide a detailed discussion of how evolutionary theory could be used to shed light on the extant literature and call for future research to consider ultimate as well as proximate perspectives.

Romantic rejection has been identified as a driver of extremism. However, current scholarly discourse has limited extremist reactions to romantic rejection to a subset of men described as patriarchal, entitled, and aggrieved—specifically, “incels.” Yet, since social rejection increases extremism among individuals in general, it seems unlikely that romantic rejection only affects a fringe male population. Especially considering the near universal importance of romantic relationships. We therefore hypothesized that romantic rejection would increase extremist agreement among individuals in a general student sample. Every three months from April to December 2023, men and women, both single and coupled (N = 639), reported how much they had sought partners, how much they had been accepted and rejected, and their extremist agreement. Results showed that rejection increased men’s Extremism, Social Dominance, and decreased their Sexism against other men. Rejection increased women’s Radicalism, Left-Wing Authoritarianism, and their Sexism against other women. These findings suggests that romantic rejection not only affects incels, but increases the extremist tendencies of men and women in general. We discuss how romantic rejection may steer individuals toward extremist ideologies that historically align with their sex’s interests—such as women becoming more Left-Wing Authoritarian and men more Socially Dominant.

Men are more reluctant than women to engage with psychotherapy. Incels-an online community of involuntary celibates-have been identified as needing mental health intervention. Despite high rates of depression, suicidality, and social isolation, little is known about their therapy experiences or attitudes. We collected 100 psychotherapy discussion threads from incels.is, the largest incel forum. Inductive thematic analysis identified community attitudes toward psychotherapy. We also coded the experiences of 89 users who reported attending therapy, quantitatively assessing therapist gender, motivation, and satisfaction. Among incels reporting therapy experiences, 70.8% reported negative outcomes and 7.9% reported satisfaction. None of those forced into therapy (25.8%) reported positive outcomes. Thematic analysis revealed barriers to engagement: (1) "blackpill" ideology attributing sexual/romantic deprivation to immutable factors; (2) conspiracy theories framing therapy as designed to sedate and control; (3) view of therapy as female-biased and hostile to men; (4) practical concerns including cost, privacy, and hospitalization. Incels present intervention challenges due to their fatalistic worldview, institutional distrust, and extreme misogyny. Findings suggest potential benefits of male therapists and clear therapeutic goals that acknowledge but do not promise to resolve romantic concerns.

Objective: Men are more reluctant than women to engage with psychotherapy. Incels—an online community of involuntary celibates—have been identified as needing mental health intervention. Despite high rates of depression, suicidality, and social isolation, little is formally known about their therapy experiences or attitudes. Methods: We conducted qualitative discourse analysis of 100 psychotherapy discussion threads from incels.is, the largest incel forum. We coded experiences of 89 users who reported attending therapy, analyzing therapist gender, motivation, and satisfaction. Inductive thematic analysis identified community attitudes toward psychotherapy.Results: Among incels reporting therapy experiences, 70.8% reported negative outcomes whereas only 7.9% reported satisfaction. None of those forced into therapy (25.8%) reported positive outcomes. Preliminary analysis suggested higher satisfaction with male therapists (16.7% vs. 7.1% for female). Thematic analysis revealed barriers to therapeutic engagement: (1) "blackpill" ideology attributing sexual/romantic deprivation and associated mental health issues to immutable factors; (2) conspiracy theories framing therapy as designed to sedate and control; (3) view of therapy as female-biased and hostile to men; (4) practical concerns including cost, privacy fears, and hospitalization.Conclusions: Incels present intervention challenges due to their fatalistic worldview, institutional distrust, and extreme misogyny. Findings suggest potential benefits of male therapists and clearly defined therapeutic goals that acknowledge but do not promise to resolve romantic concerns

A prospective partner’s sexual history provides important information that can be used to minimise mating-related risks. Such information includes the number of past sexual partners, which has an inverse relationship with positive suitor evaluation. However, sexual encounters with new partners vary in frequency over time, providing an additional dimension of context not previously considered. Across three studies ( N = 5,331) with 15 samples, we demonstrate that the impact of past partner number on a suitor’s desirability as a long-term partner varies as a function of distribution over time. Using graphical representations of a suitor’s sexual history, we found that past partner number effects were smaller when the frequency of new sexual encounters decreased over time. This moderation effect was stronger, and often curvilinear, when past partner numbers were higher. We replicated these findings in 11 countries from five world regions. Sex differences were minimal and inconsistent pointing to a lack of a sexual double standards. Sociosexuality (openness to casual sex) was a consistent moderator and tended to mute the sexual history effects. These findings suggest that people not only attend to a potential long-term mate’s quantity of sexual partners, but also the context surrounding these encounters such as pattern and timing. Together, the findings raise the possibility of an evolved mechanism for managing mating risks present in both sexes and across populations and adds nuance to a contentious topic of public interest.