Pranav Chettri

Epichloë festucae var. lolii and Epichloë sp. LpTG-3 are filamentous fungal endophytes of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) that have a substantial impact on New Zealand’s agricultural economy by conferring biotic advantages to the host grass. Epichloë endophyte strain AR37 provides ryegrass with improved agronomic performance, insect protection and plant persistence. Indole diterpenes are a class of well characterised secondary metabolites produced by Epichloë endophytes, with the AR37 strain expressing epoxyjanthitrems, a class of decorated indole diterpenes. These have been associated with the observed effects of AR37 on livestock and insect pests. Here we used gene inactivation by CRISPR-Cas9 to deconvolute the genetic basis for epoxyjanthitrem biosynthesis and manipulate this secondary metabolite pathway to reduce or remove endophyte-induced mammalian toxicity whilst retaining activity against some important agricultural insect pests. We also show that gene editing of Epichloë can be achieved without off-target events or introduction of foreign DNA (footprint-less) and that these gene edits can be classified as site-directed nuclease 1 (SDN-1), which are not regulated as genetically modified organisms in selected jurisdictions, including Australia. These SDN-1 technology edits have been successfully grown out of containment in the field in Australia for seed multiplication, followed by agronomy trials, which are now being evaluated. This has the potential to provide a step change in the future use of animal safe Epichloë strains in New Zealand pastures which will significantly reduce chemical inputs and increase animal welfare.

Pathogen incursions are a major impediment for global forest health. How pathogens and forest trees coexist over time, without pathogens simply killing their long-lived hosts, is a critical but unanswered question. The Dothistroma Needle Blight pathogen Dothistroma septosporum was introduced into New Zealand in the 1960s and remains a low-diversity, asexual population, providing a unique opportunity to analyze the evolution of a forest pathogen. Isolates of D. septosporum collected from commercial pine forests over 50 years were compared at whole-genome and phenotype levels. Limited genome diversity and increased diversification among recent isolates support the premise of a single introduction event. Isolates from the 1960s show significantly elevated virulence against Pinus radiata seedlings and produce higher levels of the virulence factor dothistromin compared to isolates collected in the 1990s and 2000s. However, later isolates have no increased tolerance to copper, used in fungicide treatments of infested forests and traditionally assumed to be a strong selection pressure. The isolated New Zealand population of this forest pathogen therefore appears to have become less virulent over time, likely in part to maintain the viability of its long-lived host. This finding has broad implications for forest health and highlights the benefits of long-term pathogen surveys.

Summary: Dothistroma needle blight is one of the most devastating pine tree diseases worldwide. New and emerging epidemics have been frequent over the last 25 years, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, where they are in part associated with changing weather patterns. One of the main Dothistroma needle blight pathogens, Dothistroma septosporum , has a global distribution but most molecular plant pathology research has been confined to Southern Hemisphere populations that have limited genetic diversity. Extensive genomic and transcriptomic data are available for a D. septosporum reference strain from New Zealand, where an introduced clonal population of the pathogen predominates. Due to the global importance of this pathogen, we determined whether the genome of this reference strain is representative of the species worldwide by sequencing the genomes of 18 strains sampled globally from different pine hosts. Genomic polymorphism shows substantial variation within the species, clustered into two distinct groups of strains with centres of diversity in Central and South America. A reciprocal chromosome translocation uniquely identifies the New Zealand strains. Globally, strains differ in their production of the virulence factor dothistromin, with extremely high production levels in strain ALP3 from Germany. Comparisons with the New Zealand reference revealed that several strains are aneuploids; for example, ALP3 has duplications of three chromosomes. Increased gene copy numbers therefore appear to contribute to increased production of dothistromin, emphasizing that studies of population structure are a necessary adjunct to functional analyses of genetic polymorphisms to identify the molecular basis of virulence in this important forest pathogen.

Summary: Genes required for fungal secondary metabolite production are usually clustered, co‐regulated and expressed in stationary growth phase. Chromatin modification has an important role in co‐regulation of secondary metabolite genes. The virulence factor dothistromin, a relative of aflatoxin, provided a unique opportunity to study chromatin level regulation in a highly fragmented gene cluster that is switched on during early exponential growth phase. We analysed three histone modification marks by ChIP‐qPCR and gene deletion in the pine pathogen Dothistroma septosporum to determine their effects on dothistromin gene expression across a time course and at different loci of the dispersed gene cluster. Changes in gene expression and dothistromin production were associated with changes in histone marks, with higher acetylation (H3K9ac) and lower methylation (H3K9me3, H3K27me3) during early exponential phase at the onset of dothistromin production. But while H3K27me3 directly influenced dothistromin genes dispersed across chromosome 12, effects of H3K9 acetylation and methylation were orchestrated mainly through a centrally located pathway regulator gene DsAflR. These results revealed that secondary metabolite production can be controlled at the chromatin‐level despite the genes being dispersed. They also suggest that patterns of chromatin modification are important in adaptation of a virulence factor for a specific role in planta.

Trichoderma cf atroviride is an endophytic soil fungus which has been the target of much research due to its plant growth promoting effects and use as a biocontrol agent. For specific bioactive strains of this species to be used with longlived forest trees such as Pinus radiata they must persist over the long term in the host root system. To investigate the persistence of specific T cf atroviride strains in the roots of P radiata unique regions were identified in the genomes of strains that were more than 997 identical by using next generation sequencing. Based on these unique regions probebased strainspecific quantitative PCR assays were developed. The assays can be used to test strain persistence in nursery and forestgrown seedlings inoculated with mixtures of T cf atroviride strains as well as in laboratory experiments to determine the effect of these strains on plant metabolism and defence.

Summary: We present genome‐wide gene expression patterns as a time series through the infection cycle of the fungal pine needle blight pathogen, D othistroma septosporum , as it invades its gymnosperm host, P inus radiata . We determined the molecular changes at three stages of the disease cycle: epiphytic/biotrophic (early), initial necrosis (mid) and mature sporulating lesion (late). Over 1.7 billion combined plant and fungal reads were sequenced to obtain 3.2 million fungal‐specific reads, which comprised as little as 0.1% of the sample reads early in infection. This enriched dataset shows that the initial biotrophic stage is characterized by the up‐regulation of genes encoding fungal cell wall‐modifying enzymes and signalling proteins. Later necrotrophic stages show the up‐regulation of genes for secondary metabolism, putative effectors, oxidoreductases, transporters and starch degradation. This in‐depth through‐time transcriptomic study provides our first snapshot of the gene expression dynamics that characterize infection by this fungal pathogen in its gymnosperm host.