Dejian Wu

Battery failure in underground mining vehicles can expose connected workings to heat and hazardous gases. This review synthesises research published primarily between 2010 and 2026 on battery thermal runaway, enclosure response, underground hazard transport and emergency response. It finds that propagation and gas release can continue without sustained external flames, while enclosure pressure and downstream exposure depend on release history, discharge conditions and ventilation. Methane and entrained coal dust may introduce additional explosion pathways under suitable mixing and ignition conditions. Intervention also depends on the failure stage, because electrical isolation cannot stop self-sustaining cell reactions. A key gap remains between pack and enclosure measurements and the changing conditions encountered by mine personnel. To address this gap, this review proposes a cross-scale assessment framework linking battery monitoring and thermal management with enclosure performance, ventilation response and personnel protection. The framework identifies the source inputs and validation checks required at each interface and relates hazard development to intervention timing, personnel movement and usable self-rescuer endurance to assess escape-route viability.

The extensive integration of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) into modern technologies—including portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and battery energy storage systems (BESSs)—has created a critical dependency on the supply of raw materials. The ongoing shift toward clean mobility is expected to further intensify this demand. This trend coincides with a projected increase in battery waste: over the next decade, millions of tons of EV and BESS batteries will reach their end-of-life (EOL), alongside the generation of considerable manufacturing scrap. Recycling is essential for recovering critical materials and reducing dependency on primary mining, thereby benefiting the circular economy and environmental sustainability. However, EOL-LIBs are more prone to thermal runaway due to defects and aging-induced degradation, which can lead to fire and explosion incidents, as well as associated environmental and health hazards. Such incidents have been increasingly reported in recent years during transportation, storage, handling, and illegal disposal, resulting in potential loss of life, property damage, and ecological degradation. To ensure the safe design and operation of the battery recycling industry, this work provides an updated overview of the health, safety and environment (HSE) hazards posed by EOL-LIBs and the safety measures required to mitigate these hazards. First, this work outlines the structures, components, and aging mechanisms of LIBs. Second, it summarizes the state-of-the-art recycling pathways and relevant process risks, such as deactivation, dismantling, and mechanical and thermal pretreatments. Third, it reviews recent safety incidents initiated by thermal runaway of EOL-LIBs and recycling intermediates like black mass, with an emphasis on storage and handling. Fourth, recommendations for future work regarding the safe storage and processing of EOL batteries are provided. Finally, conclusions and perspectives on future research directions are presented. Continued research and development in this field are essential to improve recycling methods, optimize processes, and ensure the safe and sustainable management and legislation of EOL lithium-ion batteries.