Werner Brack

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely used in industrial and consumer applications. Although increasing evidence of their negative impacts on environmental and human health exists, a comprehensive large-scale understanding of their occurrence and effects is still lacking. This Pan-European study investigates the occurrence and potential impacts of 32 PFAS representing multiple classes and chain lengths. Influent wastewater from 30 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in fifteen European countries, representing >8 million inhabitants, was analysed. Fourteen PFAS were consistently quantified, with the highest population-normalised daily loads (PNDLs) seen for PFBS, followed by PFBA, 6:2 FTS, PFNA, PFOA and PFOS, showing pronounced spatial variability. Total PFAS daily loads ranged from ∑PFAS 0.1 ± 0 g 72 hr-1 (Slovenia site 2) to ∑PFAS 133 ± 12 g 72 hr-1 (Belgium site 2), and population-normalised daily loads (PNDLs) ranged from ∑PFAS 5.0 ± 0.3 mg 72 hr-1 1000 inh-1 (Slovenia site 2) to ∑PFAS 2197 ± 186 mg 72 hr-1 1000 inh-1 (Austria site 2).PFBS had the highest PNDL, whereas 8:2 FTS showed the lowest, indicating distinct spatial patterns, suggesting localised sources and exposure hotspots, likely linked to industrial activities such as textile scouring agents or production of consumer goods. Environmental risk assessment using EU water-framework directive guidelines, in the event of a combined sewer overflow was carried out. PFDA, PFNA, PFUnDA, PFDoDA, PFBA, PFOS and PFTrDA exceeded these guidelines. However, current assessments likely underestimate total risk, as bioaccumulation, mixture effects, and long-term exposure has yet to be evaluated.

6PPD-quinone (6PPD-Q), a transformation product of the tire antioxidant 6PPD, is among the most acutely toxic chemicals to certain salmonids. Since its 2020 identification, it has been implicated in coho die-offs in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and prompted regulatory responses in North America. In Europe, however, awareness, monitoring, and risk assessment remain limited despite dense road networks, urban runoff, and sensitive fish communities. This Perspective synthesizes current knowledge and key gaps in occurrence, exposure, and species-specific toxicity, and outlines a tiered response: harmonized water screening, targeted tests in native taxa, interim stormwater mitigation, and innovation toward safer tire additives.

Aromatic amines (AAs), many of which are suspected/known mutagens, are generated in indoor environments by human activities such as smoking tobacco, meat frying and hair dying. Through sorption to textiles followed by desorption during laundry washing they may reach the water cycle and adjacent surface waters, where they contribute to the observed mutagenicity. In this study, we obtained chemical fingerprints of AAs from textiles linked with different indoor activities. Three different types of fabrics (cotton, polyester and wool) were exposed in smoking pubs, hair salons, and restaurant kitchens. In order to obtain background contamination, households of non-smokers that did not prepare or consume meat were sampled. We analysed the textile samples with a newly developed multitarget extraction and LC-HRMS method. 22 out of 52 target AAs could be detected. Large differences in AA concentrations were observed between the different indoor environments, but also among the three sites per environment type, as well as the three different fabrics per site, where wool accumulated the highest concentrations of AAs. Generally, the AA concentrations were highest in the smoking pubs, followed by restaurant kitchens, while hair salons and homes showed similar concentrations. Compounds that were predominantly observed were 4-aminodiphenylamine and the mutagens 2,4-diaminotoluene, 5‑amino‑o‑cresol, o-anisidine, 2-aminopyridine, and the co-mutagenic carboline harman, showing the potential of a pathway for AAs of reaching surface waters through adsorption to textiles. Additionally, mutagenic AAs that are unique to specific locations could be observed, 4-chloro-o-toluidine in hair salon samples and 4-aminobiphenyl in smoking pub samples.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and fluorinated ionic liquids are increasingly recognized as persistent environmental contaminants. In this study, municipal effluent samples from 30 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across 15 European countries were analyzed using supercritical fluid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (SFC-HRMS) for non-target screening of fluorinated compounds. The bis-perfluoroalkyl sulfonimide (bis-FASI) class of ionic liquids was widely detected, including bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (NTf₂⁻), two rarely reported homologues (±2 CF₂, namely FSI- and BETI-), and two previously unreported homologues (±1 CF₂, namely FTFSI- and FTNTf2-). Bis-FASIs were present in 85% of samples and were more abundant in effluents from larger WWTPs. The fluorinated anion PF₆⁻, commonly used in ionic liquids, was found in all samples at concentrations up to 3 µg/L. Hexafluoroarsenate (AsF₆⁻), reported here for the first time in municipal wastewater, was detected in 32% of samples in eight countries. PF₆⁻ and AsF₆⁻ concentrations (when present) exceeded those of traditional PFSAs and PFCAs in 97% of samples. Polyfluorinated compounds showed partial removal during treatment, while perfluorinated compounds, inorganic fluorinated anions, and low-fluorinated pharmaceuticals and pesticides showed no removal. Low-fluorinated substances exceeded 100 ng/L in 90% of samples, yet PF₆⁻ alone surpassed the combined concentration of all low-fluorinated substances in 27 out of 30 samples. These results reveal a significant contribution of unconventional fluorinated substances to the overall fluorine load in wastewater. The dominant contributor, PF₆⁻, falls outside current PFAS regulatory definitions, underscoring the urgent need to expand monitoring strategies beyond legacy PFAS to include both inorganic and low-fluorinated contaminants.