Francesca M. M. Citron

The use of metaphors, whether linguistic or visual, has been shown to enhance advertisement effectiveness, and sensory marketing research highlights the positive effects of appealing to consumers’ sensory perception. Synaesthetic metaphors, which involve metaphor and sensory experiences, are ideal for studying the effects of both metaphor and (multi)sensory cues in advertisements. We experimentally tested the hypothesis that the presence of (linguistic and/or visual) metaphor and the evocation of multiple senses will enhance advertisement appreciation and the intention to purchase the advertised product. We manipulated eight print advertisements, each of which was presented in the following conditions: (1) visual and linguistic synaesthetic metaphor; (2) linguistic but no visual synaesthetic metaphor; (3) visual but no linguistic synaesthetic metaphor; and (4) neither visual nor linguistic synaesthetic metaphor. Each advertisement was also rated for its multisensoriality, that is, its association with the five basic senses. Results partly supported the hypothesis, showing that advertisements with both visual and linguistic synaesthetic metaphors and those perceived as more multisensory were most appreciated. However, purchase intentions were not influenced by either metaphor or multisensoriality. This indicates that higher aesthetic appreciation does not necessarily translate into higher purchase intentions, suggesting the need for further research into additional influencing factors.

Memory for emotional information is greater than for non-emotional information and is enhanced by sleep-related consolidation. Previous studies have focused on emotional arousal and valence of established stimuli, but what is the effect of sleep on newly acquired emotional information? Figurative expressions, which are pervasive in everyday communication, are often rated as higher in emotionality than their literal counterparts, but the effect of emotionality on the learning of metaphors, and the effect of sleep on newly acquired emotionally negative, positive and neutral language, is as yet poorly understood. In this study, participants were asked to memorise conventional (e.g. ‘ sunny disposition’ ) and novel (e.g. ‘ cloudy disposition’ ) metaphorical word pairs varying in valence, accompanied by their definitions. After a 12-hour period of sleep or wake, participants were tested on their recognition of word pairs and recall of definitions. We found higher arousal ratings were related to increased recognition and recall performance. Furthermore, sleep increased the accurate recognition of all word pairs compared to wake but also reduced the valence of word pairs. The results indicate better memory for newly acquired emotional stimuli, a benefit of sleep for memory, but also a reduction in emotional arousal as a consequence of sleep consolidation.

Emotions in networked learning have been underresearched despite their importance. The present research is one of the first few attempts to better understand adult learners’ emotional experiences in a specific networked learning context—an online doctoral programme designed and organised based on networked learning principles. This paper takes the initial step of unpacking the intricate interplay between emotions and networked learning experiences, utilising a longitudinal, mixed methods research approach to demonstrate the diversity and complexity of emotions experienced in networked learning situations. Online doctoral students (n=48) completed a questionnaire four times during the first six months of their PhD program, with an interval of five to six weeks. This is the most critical period for students to develop multiple connections promoting networked learning both within and outside the programme. They connected to new people, ideas, and resources, becoming an integral part of learning networks. The questionnaire quantitatively measured the intensity of 36 different emotions felt by each student, respectively, about their networked learning experiences and general life experiences. Participants also qualitatively reflected on the most intense emotions and wrote “why” they felt such ways. Based on quantitative data, a principal component analysis extracted five meaningful clusters of emotions and repeated-measures ANOVAs further showed meaningful patterns and changes in those emotions. The qualitative data was analysed using a constant comparative method to identify dominant themes to provide deeper insights into student emotions. Findings suggest that emotions are in a constant state of flux, reflecting the multifaceted nature of networked learning experiences, through which learners juggle multiple responsibilities and connections across different times and spaces. Two distinct categories of emotions emerged: positive and negative. Despite the challenges and complexities of online doctoral studies, positive emotions remained resilient, underscoring networked learning as a source of inspiration—with the heightened 'Intrigued' component at specific learning milestones. Negative emotions are nuanced, with negative cognitive emotions, associated with networked learning experiences, intensifying initially and decreasing as students adapt; while negative gut reactions are more prevalent in general life. However, a notable release of negative cognitive emotions in general life suggests the interplay between emotions arising from networked learning and their influence on students' broader experiences. Surprisingly, the study challenges assumptions about isolation in online learning, revealing a consistent sense of social inclusion and support within the learning network. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of emotions in networked learning, offering valuable insights for supporting adult learners.

Conversational pragmatics is the study of language used in context, hence it goes beyond linguistic knowledge, such as word meaning, to incorporate social context, speaker’s intention and listener’s background. While a wealth of research into teaching, learning and assessment of the acquisition of pragmatic competence in L2 exists, almost no neurolinguistic research has been conducted to understand the temporal unfolding and neural correlates of how pragmatic phenomena are processed in L2; possibly because pragmatics has less of a focus on language knowledge. One exception is the study of pragmatic routines, including figurative expressions, and a handful of neuroscientific studies of discourse comprehension, which have extended to L2 speakers. This chapter reviews empirical research on the L2 pragmatic system by integrating traditional applied research with neurolinguistics, with a predominant focus on the latter, and provides suggestions for future promising avenues of neurolinguistic investigation.

Conversational pragmatics is the study of language used in context, hence it goes beyond linguistic knowledge, such as word meaning, to incorporate social context, speaker’s intention and listener’s background. While a wealth of research into teaching, learning, and assessment of the acquisition of pragmatic competence in L2 exists, almost no neurolinguistic research has been conducted to understand the temporal unfolding and neural correlates of how pragmatic phenomena are processed in L2; possibly because pragmatics has less of a focus on language knowledge. One exception is the study of pragmatic routines, including figurative expressions, and a handful of neuroscientific studies of discourse comprehension, which have extended to L2 speakers. This chapter reviews empirical research on the L2 pragmatic system by integrating traditional applied research with neurolinguistics, with a predominant focus on the latter, and provides suggestions for future promising avenues of neurolinguistic investigation.

Psycholinguistic research has shown that conceptual metaphors influence how people produce and understand language (e.g., Gibbs, 1994, 2017a; Kövecses, 2015; Jacobs & Kinder, 2017). So far, investigations have mostly paid attention to non-poetic metaphor comprehension. This focus stems from the original discovery of Conceptual Metaphor Theory that much of everyday, non-poetic language is metaphorical. The present study aims to expand this focus and explores whether people access conceptual metaphors during poetry interpretation. To answer this question, we conducted a psycholinguistic experiment in which 38 participants, all native speakers of English, completed two tasks. In each task, participants read excerpts of poetry containing conceptual metaphors before selecting or rating items that indicated their implicit and explicit awareness of the conceptual metaphors. The results of both tasks show that participants retrieve conceptual metaphors when reading poetry. This provides empirical evidence in favor of the idea that crucial aspects of poetic thought and language arise from conceptual metaphor.

Figurative expressions have been shown to play a special role in evoking affective responses, as compared to their literal counterparts. This study provide

(2019). Language that conveys emotion: a commentary on Hinojosa, Moreno and Ferré (2019). Language, Cognition and Neuroscience. Ahead of Print.