Sinan Küfeoğlu

In Great Britain, newly contracted clean electricity is cheaper to generate than new fossil‐fuel generation subject to a carbon price. Nevertheless, electricity has not become cheaper for consumers. This paper traces ten system and policy layers of the consumer electricity bill to the specific tariff or levy through which each is recovered. The layers are generation, CfD settlement, transmission, distribution, balancing, storage, capacity, legacy policy, industrial policy and decommissioning. Three results follow. First, the full consumer cost of the wind‐dominated system is more than twice the headline Contracts for Difference strike price that dominates public debate. Second, the increase is not a generation story. System operator tariff forecasts published in 2025 imply a near‐doubling of the transmission revenue pool by 2030/31. However, no official publication assembles these layers into a single forward consumer cost. Third, against a deliberately conservative counterfactual without net‐zero legislation, the transition imposes a net consumer premium of £17–37/MWh in 2030 (roughly £6–12 billion per year). Almost all these premiums sit in the network and system layers rather than in the generation layer. These layers are largely recovered from demand, much of it at volume. How the premium is allocated, rather than its size, is therefore the main remaining lever for an affordable and socially sustainable transition.

Building wind farms and solar panels is getting cheaper, but powering an entire country on clean electricity requires much more: thousands of kilometres of new transmission, storage to manage variability, and real‐time balancing to hold the system together when the wind drops. These costs rarely feature in headline figures, yet they are what consumers actually pay. This paper asks what the cost to households and businesses will be of Great Britain's Clean Power 2030 (CP2030) pathway, with at least 95% low‐carbon generation, with wind and solar supplying roughly four‐fifths of the mix. It develops the forward consumer bill model (FCBM), a structural framework that projects the complete consumer electricity bill under that pathway. Building on the total energy system consumer cost framework, the FCBM traces all 10 layers of the bill, from generation and contracts for difference settlement through transmission, distribution, balancing, long‐duration storage, capacity and legacy policy levies to decommissioning, and maps each to its actual cost‐recovery instrument. Crucially, these layers do not simply add up. As variable renewable penetration rises, they interact through shared system‐state drivers, and treating them as independently additive biases the total.

This chapter investigates the essential components required for the hydrogen economy. It begins by examining various hydrogen production methods, including grey, blue, green, and nuclear-based hydrogen, highlighting their roles and limitations. The chapter then discusses hydrogen transportation, covering road, ship, pipeline, and tube trailer methods, as well as hydrogen carrier materials, to emphasise the logistics of moving hydrogen efficiently and safely. Storage solutions, including compressed, liquefied, and cryo-compressed hydrogen, as well as advanced technologies like liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) and metal hydrides, are analysed for their critical role in maintaining hydrogen’s availability. The chapter also covers hydrogen utilisation in fuel and power systems and the significance of hydrogen sensors. Additionally, the chapter highlights the importance of developing robust hydrogen infrastructure, the role of key stakeholders, and the necessity for research collaborations and trade partnerships to advance hydrogen production, transportation, storage, and utilization.

This chapter reviews the business models of 64 companies from 18 countries worldwide. The chapter introduces 20 business sectors where hydrogen can be deployed commercially. It begins with an exploration of blue and green hydrogen, examining their production methods, market potential, and economic viability. It then assesses key technologies essential for hydrogen deployment, including catalysts, electrolysers, and storage solutions. The discussion extends to specific applications, such as ammonia and methanol production, blending hydrogen with natural gas, and the use of hydrogen in various industries including cement, glass, and steel production. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive discussion and synthesis of the business cases, highlighting the opportunities and challenges associated with each application. By providing a detailed analysis of the economic aspects and practical implementations of hydrogen technology, this chapter aims to inform stakeholders and decision-makers on the viability and strategic role of hydrogen in achieving a low-carbon future.

"Exploring the Hydrogen Economy" published on 04 Apr 2025 by Edward Elgar Publishing.

"Index" published on 04 Apr 2025 by Edward Elgar Publishing.

This chapter investigates the role hydrogen plays in global decarbonisation efforts. It begins by examining international initiatives designed to promote the development and integration of hydrogen as a sustainable energy carrier, highlighting key programmes and collaborations that drive innovation and investment. The chapter provides an overview of leading countries and regions spearheading hydrogen development, focusing on the Asia-Pacific, Europe, and North and South America. Each region’s strategies, goals, and progress in building a robust hydrogen economy are analysed, showcasing how they contribute to the global decarbonisation agenda. Additionally, the chapter discusses other regions contributing to the hydrogen economy, exploring how different countries are leveraging hydrogen to achieve energy transition goals. By providing a comprehensive overview of key players and their objectives, this chapter overviews the importance of international cooperation and strategic initiatives in realizing a sustainable hydrogen economy that supports global climate targets.

This chapter explores the escalating global challenge of carbon emissions and highlights the urgent need for coordinated action. The chapter begins by examining the magnitude of global carbon emissions and the imperative for rapid decarbonisation to mitigate climate change. It highlights international efforts, showcasing progress and achievements made to date. A key focus is the critical role of decarbonisation in the energy sector and energy-intensive industries, emphasising sectors like cement, iron and steel, petroleum refining, glass production, and manufacturing, which are significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. The necessity of transitioning to clean energy alternatives is emphasised, comparing the benefits of renewable energy sources to the drawbacks of continued fossil fuel reliance. The chapter concludes by reinforcing the urgent need for innovative strategies and clean energy technologies to combat climate change and achieve a sustainable energy future.

This chapter investigates hydrogen’s transformative potential in energy systems and industries worldwide. Traditionally used in sectors like chemical production, refining, and steel, hydrogen’s role is evolving as the demand for sustainable energy intensifies. As a versatile energy carrier, hydrogen’s adaptability is evident in its traditional and emerging applications, such as grid integration, transportation, and green hydrogen production via electrolysis. The chapter highlights hydrogen’s crucial role as a feedstock and reactant in energy-intensive industries, like ammonia and methanol production, emphasizing its environmental benefits over conventional carbon-based reducing agents. Current global hydrogen demand, led by the refining industry, illustrates its vital role in modern processes. The text further investigates hydrogen’s applications across industries, exploring methods like steam methane reforming, the Haber-Bosch process, and hydrogenation. The potential of hydrogen in achieving carbon neutrality, as aligned with the Paris Agreement, is emphasised by its role in electrifying sectors and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The chapter concludes by examining the hydrogen value chain, including production, transportation, and end-use sectors, critically assessing hydrogen’s role in the global transition to sustainable energy.