Karina Antúnez

The development of beekeeping in Ecuador has generated the need to strengthen the bee health program. Research on the main pathogens responsible for diseases like nosemosis, which can severely impact bee health, is of special interest. This study aims to identify the Nosema apis and/or Nosema ceranae species infecting honey bee colonies located in the northern Andean region of Ecuador using multiplex PCR targeting the RNA polymerase II gene (RPB1), and the phylogenetic analysis of N. ceranae based on the 16 S rRNA gene sequences. Among the 164 honey bee samples collected from colonies in the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, and Pichincha, the prevalence of Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae was 14.63% and 21.34%, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that N. ceranae from Ecuador is closely related to the sequences from Argentina and Brazil. These findings provide the first molecular confirmation of N. ceranae in Ecuador and support the need for molecular monitoring of honey bee pathogens in the region.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) play a major ecological role since they are the main pollinators worldwide. In addition, these insects have been managed for commercial purposes for a long time due to the products obtained from their colonies. However, based on the number of published scientific studies, honey bee nutrition is a topic that has received increasing attention during the last years, likely due to land use intensification, which has decreased the diversity and/or quality of pollen available for honey bees, impacting their health. Moreover, there is an increase in inquiries from beekeepers regarding strategies to mitigate nutritional stress, suggesting that the information available is not enough. This gap might be related to the fact that honey bee nutrition is closely dependent on the environment in which the honey bees are. In this revision, we first review the information regarding honey bees' nutritional resources and requirements. Secondly, we analyze the flow of these nutritional resources within the honey bee colony and their effect at the individual and colony level. Thirdly, we analyze the impact of nutritional stress on honey bee colonies, explore the availability of strategies for colony supplementation, and discuss their effects on colonies' strength and productivity. Fourthly, we analyze the interaction between the infection level with pathogens and nutritional stress, considering the Eucalyptus grandis plantations, a common scenario in Uruguay in which those stressors interact. Finally, we aimed to identify research directions that could contribute to improving honey bee health through nutrition. Understanding the complex interactions between honey bee colonies, their environment and beekeeping management practices is key to achieving a sustainable productive activity.

Pesticide use is a core strategy to control agricultural pests. Although international treaties and health recommendations call for banning hazardous pesticides, globally harmonized pesticide governance remains elusive. In Latin America (LATAM), the main net food exporter worldwide, agricultural pesticide use has increased by approximately 500% since 1990, compared with only approximately 3% in Europe. To assess the environmental and health rigour of LATAM’s pesticide legislation, we reviewed active ingredients (AIs) approved for ten major crops, and AIs banned at national level, in eight LATAM countries, assessed their hazardousness according to international standards, and legal status in the European Union (EU) and explored sources of variation in the number of AIs approved in LATAM. We identified 523 AIs approved and 236 banned in LATAM; approximately 50% of the approved and approximately 85% of the banned AIs in LATAM were either not approved or prohibited in the EU. Higher crop production and, to a lesser extent, export value were linked to more AIs approved in LATAM. These findings imply weaker regulatory frameworks for hazardous pesticides in LATAM, reflecting more permissive environmental policies compared with the EU. This reinforces the urgency of addressing asymmetries in pesticide governance and rethinking the prevailing agricultural paradigm.

The development of beekeeping in Ecuador has generated the need to strengthen the bee health program. Research on the main pathogens responsible for diseases like nosemosis, which can severely impact bee health, is of special interest. This study aims to detect and identify the Nosema apis and / or Nosema ceranae species affecting honeybee colonies located in the northern Sierra region of Ecuador through the amplification of RPB1 gene fragments by multiplex PCR and the phylogenetic analysis of N. ceranae based on the 16 S RNAr gene. Of the 164 honeybee samples collected from colonies located in the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha, N. apis was detected in 14.63% (24/164), and N. ceranae in 21.34% (35/164). Phylogenetic analysis showed that N. ceranae from Ecuador is closely related to the sequences from Argentina and Brazil. This study is the first in the country to report the presence of these two microsporidia species, being valuable for improving diagnostic capabilities.

Honey bees ( Apis mellifera ) play a crucial role in global food production through pollination services. However, their populations are threatened by various stressors, like the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and associated viral pathogens. In this study, we aimed to characterise and compare the viral communities (viromes) in V. destructor ‐resistant and susceptible colonies using high‐throughput sequencing. Our findings revealed differences in virome composition associated with the season and not with the resistance or susceptibility to V. destructor . Furthermore, we detected Apis mellifera filamentous virus (AmFV) and Lake Sinai virus (LSV) for the first time in Uruguay, and obtained the complete or partial genomes of both viruses, along with those of other previously described viruses, such as Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), Black queen cell virus (BQCV), Deformed wing virus (DWV), and Sacbrood virus (SBV). This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the virome dynamics in honey bees. It highlights the importance of this type of study for the early detection of new viral pathogens, which could help to understand the tripartite network involving V. destructor , honey bees, and viruses.