George Frederick Michel

The natural history orientation to behavioral development is a distinguishing feature of DPB and is clearly represented in Tinbergen’s four questions that can be asked about any behavior or psychological ability. Tinbergen’s questions are: (1) What are the physiological, biomechanical, and environmental processes that govern the immediate expression of the behavior or ability (the Proximate Question)? (2) What does the behavior or ability accomplish for the continued survival or reproductive success of the individual (the Adaptive Question)? (3) How does the ability relate to that of other species (the Phylogenetic Question)? (4) How does the ability develop (the Developmental Question)? Tinbergen warned that the answer to any one question cannot substitute for an answer to another. Each question must receive its own investigation. However, knowledge of the answers to the Developmental Question may be especially important for understanding each of the other three answers.

The Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) differs from the Standard Theory (ST) in explaining the meaning of at least six fundamental constructs in the theory of evolution. The EES definition of “species” and “natural selection” is more compatible with Darwin’s original definitions, with “species” losing the potential for essentialism and “natural selection” being a result of differential reproductive success rather than a cause. Also, for EES, adaptation requires extensive investigation to demonstrate its role in evolution and not just rational argument. “Genes” lose their explanatory privileges in EES, and the notion of “human nature” becomes trivial. “Inheritance” broadens to include ecological conditions and becomes holistic. In EES, developmental biology (particularly in the form of Ecological Evo-Devo) is restored as an equal partner with natural selection and heredity for understanding evolution.

Schneirla’s approach to developmental phenomena is described including the constructs of Phyletic Levels and Functional Levels/Orders of organization. Phyletic Levels notes the extensive variety of organization among species and requires the researcher to incorporate an understanding of these differences in their causal explanations of behavioral development. Functional Levels or Orders notes that any individual consists of many units (levels) of organization (systems) from the characteristics of single cells, groups of cells operating as tissue, etc. to those characteristics involving the relationship of the individual to its social and physical environment. The general task of the developmental psychobiologist is to examine the ontogenetic history of these various levels of functional organization during the individual’s development from conception to death using a natural history orientation and an historical stance (examining the development from previous phases rather than development to some commonly defined outcome.

This chapter describes several intensive studies of how parental care influences offspring development. The studies include the role of previous experience in mammalian reproduction, how maternal care affects the sexual differentiation of copulatory behavior in rats, how maternal care affects the development of the regulation of the hormonal responses to stress-inducing conditions in rats, and finally how male and female parental care affects the mating behavior of prairie voles. These studies demonstrate how the experiences of the parents in adjusting to changes in their habitat can be passed down to the offspring, permitting them to be better adapted to that habitat.

Eco-Evo-Devo (EED) continues the EES incorporation of developmental processes into the understanding of speciation and evolution. EED constrains the role of genes in development and opens the investigation of developmental plasticity in morphology and behavior as the source of adaptation and speciation. Alterations in four developmental processes (heterochrony, heterotopy, heterometry, heterotypy) readily contribute to the manifestation of both micro- and macro-evolution. Heterochrony refers to the changes in when and for how long some developmental process occurs. Heterotopy refers to changes in where a developmental process is manifested compared to its usual place relative to other developmental processes. Heterometry refers to increases or decreases in the amount or intensity of a developmental process. Heterotypy refers to a change in what developmental process is occurring at that time and location. Researchers can use the construct of “developmental plasticity” along with these four sources of developmental repatterning to reveal the sources of both species-typical and individually specific developmental abilities.

Combining Eco-Evo-Devo (EED) with developmental psychobiology (DPB) adds behavioral development (particularly the development of psychological abilities) to EED and developmental repatterning notions to DPB. This combination removes the influence of the interactionist meme from developmental interpretations. Removing the interactionist meme will improve greatly our understanding of nonhuman and human behavioral/psychological development. This chapter describes the value of the EED/DPB synthesis for understanding human developmental psychology and can lead to improvements in education, sociology, public health, and the medical sciences. In addition, the EED/DPB synthesis can improve the conservation of ecological habitats and the quality of life in conditions of animal husbandry and domestication of species. Hopefully, the continued growth of the EED/DPB discipline will result in a more extensive application of the discipline’s constructs and evidence in society.

Developmental psychobiology (DPB) is defined neither by its research topics nor by its use of biological techniques and theoretical constructs to investigate psychological phenomena. DPB examines the interwoven influences of physiological, biomechanical, and environmental (particularly experiential) processes in establishing the trajectories of behavioral/psychological development, particularly species-typical development. This chapter shows how DPB differs from other developmental disciplines such as developmental evolutionary psychology, developmental neuropsychology, developmental behavioral neuroscience, developmental systems theory, and developmental biopsychiatry. The factors that distinguish DPB from these other disciplines clarify why the label “developmental psychobiology” emphasizes the distinguishing features of the discipline and its value for the progress of developmental science.