Paul Waswa Webala

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) presents an existential One Health threat. The spread of AMR in arid and semi-arid landscapes is modulated by ecological interactions and exacerbated by endemicity of livestock diseases and poor sanitation in shared human-animal systems leading to misuse of antibiotics. This study characterized the prevalence, resistance patterns, and spatiotemporal variations of AMR in surface water sources in the Maasai Mara Ecosystem (MME), a rapidly changing water-stressed socio-ecological landscape. Employing cross-sectional study design, water samples were collected from 28 water points between April 2024 and May 2025. Cultured Escherichia coli isolates were evaluated for resistance to eight antibiotics, following CLSI susceptibility testing protocols. AMR prevalence was calculated as proportions, with associations between sampling sites and seasons assessed using chi-square. Local clustering of resistant isolates was evaluated using spatial multinomial modelling, while cost-distance analysis against water points identified the proportion of the MME population with limited access to potable water. E. coli was detected in 92.9% water sources, with all isolates resistant to at least one antibiotic. High resistance rates were observed for Penicillin (100%), Amoxicillin (92.6%), Nitrofurantoin (78.6%), and Ceftazidime (52.9%). River samples exhibited higher resistance (51.4%) than open water pans (40.4%). AMR peaked during short-wet and short-dry seasons (51.3%; 51.5% respectively), with seasonal variations being significant ( p = 0.04 ). Multi-drug-resistant isolates (MDR: resistant to ≥3 antibiotic classes) were detected across all seasons, peaking in the short-wet season. MDR relationship between water sources was insignificant across all sampling sites and seasons ( p > 0.05 ). Spatial analysis ( p > 0.05 ) identified two exploratory clusters: Cluster 1 near dense human areas (RR = 0.78) while Cluster 2 in human-livestock-wildlife zones (RR = 1.26). Cost-distance analysis ( p < 0.05 ) revealed one-third of the MME population is at risk of AMR due to limited access to potable water. Our findings reveal widespread distribution of AMR isolates in shared waterpoints, necessitating targeted One Health Quadripartite interventions.

Los humedales de África Oriental constituyen recursos naturales fundamentales, pero se carece de información sobre la riqueza y abundancia de especies de fauna silvestre. Ruanda se caracteriza por su relieve accidentado, donde los pantanos y otros humedales representan aproximadamente el 8% de la superficie del país. Se prevé que estos humedales, que sirven como zonas de refugio y alimentación, alberguen una mayor diversidad de especies de murciélagos que las tierras agrícolas abiertas y las colinas dominadas por eucaliptos adyacentes. En 2023 se llevó a cabo un estudio sobre murciélagos en el humedal de Rugezi, en el norte de Ruanda, abarcando dos temporadas distintas: de junio a julio y de noviembre a diciembre. Para la recopilación de datos se emplearon técnicas de búsqueda de refugios, métodos tradicionales de captura, monitoreo acústico y códigos de barras de ADN. Se registraron veintidós especies de murciélagos pertenecientes a seis familias, incluida una especie indeterminada del género Pipistrellus que, según datos moleculares, podría constituir una nueva especie y, por tanto, requiere un análisis más exhaustivo. Cabe destacar que aquí se encuentra más del cuarenta por ciento de la biodiversidad de murciélagos de Ruanda; no obstante, muchas especies parecen ser escasas, como el amenazado murciélago gigante de Harrison (Otomops harrisoni), clasificado como Vulnerable en la Lista Roja de la UICN. Existen razones de peso para proteger este humedal dada su excepcional riqueza de especies de murciélagos, que incluye una especie amenazada. Los datos de referencia sobre la biodiversidad de murciélagos ofrecen una oportunidad única para monitorear los cambios que podrían derivarse de una eventual restauración de este singular humedal.

Habitat loss and degradation pose significant threats to biodiversity, especially in tropical regions characterized by high biodiversity levels and elevated deforestation rates. However, there is a lack of sufficient information concerning the effects of such disturbances on bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) in tropical Africa. This research investigated the impact of habitat degradation on bat communities in two forests of varying sizes, South Nandi and North Nandi, located in western Kenya, through bat capture methods. Tree density and forest human use intensity served as predictors for relative bat abundance and species richness. A total of 6,003 bats were recorded, representing 21 species across seven families, during a comprehensive study involving 5,322 hours of mist-netting and 4,224 hours of harp trapping. A progressive decline in species richness (S) was observed from the forest interiors (S = 17) to the edges (S = 16) and the matrices (S = 12) at both forests. Fruit bats (n = 3427; 61.7%) were predominantly detected at the edges and within the matrices, with a limited presence in the forest interior. Conversely, forest-interior insectivorous bats and those foraging in confined spaces (n = 260; 58.6%) were primarily recorded within the forest interiors. Forest specialists exhibited significant correlations with tree density, whereas frugivores and edge- and open-space foraging species showed positive responses to human activity indicators, including cut stumps, charcoal kilns, and footpaths in highly degraded matrices and along forest edges. Consequently, specialized bat species are particularly vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation.

Identifying and characterizing zoonotic pathogens in wildlife is essential for understanding disease risk to humans. In Sub-Saharan Africa, many people live with bats in their houses and are exposed to their pathogens, yet little is known about the bacterial pathogens in Afrotropical bat species. Globally, Bartonella spp. (bartonellae) and hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas) are common bacterial pathogens in bats, and some lineages are known to spill over and cause infections in humans. To evaluate this disease risk, we screened three common synanthropic bat species in Kenya, and their ectoparasites, for hemoplasmas and bartonellae and assessed their relatedness to known human pathogens. Of 767 bats across 21 sites, 17.9% of bats were Bartonella spp. positive and 19.3% were hemoplasma positive. Bat ectoparasites had similar Bartonella prevalence (13.5–25.0%) and, for most bat species, ectoparasite loads were not associated with increased likelihood of Bartonella infection. We found that Bartonella lineages displayed phylogenetic overlap between different bat species and ectoparasites, suggesting pathogen sharing between species, while hemoplasma lineages corresponded strictly to host taxonomy. Finally, we found that 16S rRNA sequences from one heart-nosed bat ( Cardioderma cor ) were 97.85% similar to a human-associated hemoplasma found previously in Schreiber’s bats ( Miniopterus schreibersii ) in Spain. We show that synanthropic bats host bacteria of potential public health concern, highlighting the need to investigate the emerging impacts of these pathogens on human health in Kenya and elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Water scarcity and poor access to potable water are growing concerns in sub-Saharan Africa. This study investigated seasonal variations in microbial contamination and physicochemical properties of surface waterpoints, the primary sources of water in southwestern Kenya, using a cross-sectional environmental surveillance design (May 2024-April 2025). Total coliforms and Escherichia coli isolates were quantified, to assess water safety and ecosystem health using membrane filtration and differential chromogenic agar. Results revealed high microbial contamination in all samples (100% for total coliforms; 62.5% for E. coli ), with significantly higher bacterial loads during the wet season. Total coliforms and E. coli averaged 1.13 × 10 ⁶ CFUs/mL and 1.34 ± 1.26 × 10 ⁵ ; and 2.84 × 10 ⁵ CFUs/mL and 9.82 ± 9.78 × 10 ⁴ , respectively, for wet and dry seasons respectively. Prevalence of E. coli in sampled sites was statistically significant between seasons ( χ ² (1, N = 28) = 20.57, P < .05). Physicochemical parameters varied seasonally, with the dry season having higher pH, temperature, total dissolved solids and dissolved oxygen, while the wet season had higher conductivity. During the dry season, E. coli and total coliforms were not correlated while in the wet season, a weak but significant correlation existed ( r = 0.465, P = .003). Microbial parameters showed no significant correlation with physicochemical variables in either season, emphasising distinct seasonal interaction patterns. MANOVA conducted to assess the influence of water bodies, seasons and their interactions on microbial and physiochemical parameters revealed that water quality was significantly influenced by both water body type and season ( P < .001). Total coliforms were significantly influenced by season but not water sources. The presence of unsafe microbial loads and poor water quality highlights public health risks and potentially impact on livestock and livelihoods. These microscale findings, advocate for continuous ecological surveillance and public health monitoring on water quality status and community awareness. We recommend promotion of nature-based indigenous solutions for water and ecosystem management amid climate change.

Arid and Semi‐Arid Lands have witnessed a surge in extreme climatic events with devastating environmental and livelihood effects. Understanding the dynamics of these extreme events, including drought, is essential for anticipatory action among resource‐dependent communities. This study utilised Earth Observatory Systems and Google Earth Engine to analyse 24 years of Normalised Difference Drought Index trends in the Narok West landscape of Kenya across six timeframes (2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2024). It revealed that the Normalised Difference Drought Index ranged from −0.489 (April 2000) to 0.469 (August 2005). Additionally, it established that during June–July–August dry seasons, there was an increase in the proportionate area under severe drought from 11% in 2000 to 24% in 2024 (average 19.17%, SD: 8.43%); and a decrease in the proportionate area under non‐drought (good conditions) from 57.5% in 2000 to 40.5% in 2024 (average 40.5%, SD: 7.43%) respectively. Temporal increase in drought events was observed to be increasing from 2015, with extremes witnessed in 2020. Moreover, we established that season dry season rainfall averages 147.2 mm (95% CI: 100.7–193.8) and is decreasing at a rate of 1.25 mm annually. It is anticipated that the frequency and severity of drought across the landscape might increase due to weather variability, predominantly attributed to climate change. The increase could have a detrimental effect on water quality and quantity, public and ecosystem health, mental health and wellness, peace and protection, and rangeland ecology. Our study contributes to the body of research on future drought scenarios, which could assist with methodological and empirical studies and corrective actions. To adapt to and manage the effects of changing climate, these scenarios necessitate interdisciplinary community and landscape strategies, including the need for communities to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of climate change and plan for the sustainable management of water resources.

This project sought to mobilize existing biodiversity data for 31 species of small carnivores (Mammalia, Carnivora, ≤15 kg) inhabiting or potentially occurring in Kenya to assist in developing a national strategy for their conservation. Funded through the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) Biodiversity Information for Development (BID), the project focused on student-based data digitization and mobilization of specimens housed in the National Museums of Kenya (NMK). Over a 6-month period, a cohort of 14 Kenyan students and three museum professionals digitized 1112 specimen occurrence records of 30 species of small carnivores. Professional training included participation in two workshops and one field trip. Digitized specimen records were combined with existing data to highlight conservation priorities for the 31 species that form the basis of the first National Small Carnivore Conservation Action Plan for Kenya. Although the project began with additional partners maintaining potential records of these 31 species, data curation and accessibility issues with these non-vouchered records limited successful mobilization to the NMK specimens, further emphasizing the unique value such collections possess in terms of housing resources available for public data sharing. This paper reports on the process, use, and conservation implications of these data, highlighting successes and challenges.

Biodiversity is severely threatened globally, with habitat loss and other human pressures accelerating species extinctions. Protected areas (PAs) are a critical conservation tool; however, their effectiveness in safeguarding many taxa, such as bats, remains unclear. Using georeferenced occurrence records and species distribution models (SDMs) for 263 sub‐Saharan African bat species, we evaluated the coverage of bats in 7875 terrestrial PAs. Eighty‐nine percent of bat species were recorded in at least 1 PA, yet 28 species, including 5 threatened and 15 data deficient species, were absent from all PAs. Species with large extents of occurrence were represented in more PAs, and fruit bats occupied significantly more PAs than clutter, edge, or open‐air insectivorous foragers. The SDMs revealed high species richness in some undersurveyed areas, particularly in West and Central Africa and the Albertine Rift, emphasizing the need for targeted surveys. Our findings underscore critical data deficiencies related to bat conservation and stress the urgency of integrating bats into broader conservation planning. More surveys, enhanced data‐sharing, and tailored conservation strategies are needed to improve bat representation in PAs and safeguard their ecological roles in Africa's biodiverse landscapes.

Most human emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic, originating in animal hosts prior to spillover to humans. Prioritizing the surveillance of wildlife that overlaps with humans and human activities can increase the likelihood of detecting viruses with a high potential for human infection. Here, we obtained fecal swabs from two fruit bat species—Eidolon helvum (n = 6) and Epomophorus wahlbergi (n = 43) (family Pteropodidae)—in peridomestic habitats in Nairobi, Kenya, and used metagenome sequencing to detect microorganisms. A near-complete genome of a novel virus assigned taxonomically to the Coronaviridae family Betacoronavirus genus and Nobecovirus subclade was characterized from E. wahlbergi. Phylogenetic analysis indicates this unique Nobecovirus clade shares a common ancestor with Eidolon/Rousettus Nobecovirus subclades isolated from Madagascar, Kenya, and Cameroon. Recombination was detected across open reading frames, except the spike protein, in all BOOTSCAN analyses, indicating intra-host coinfection and genetic exchange between genome regions. Although Nobecoviruses are currently bat-specific and are not known to be zoonotic, the propensity of coronaviruses to undergo frequent recombination events and the location of the virus alongside high human and livestock densities in one of East Africa’s most rapidly developing cities justifies continued surveillance of animal viruses in high-risk urban landscapes.

The widespread family Vespertilionidae constitutes the largest family of bats with 533 described species. However, systematic relationships within this family remain unresolved for many clades among the pipistrelle-like bats of the tribes Vespertilionini and Pipistrellini. In this study, we focus on the recently proposed endemic African subtribe Laephotina (Vespertilionini) and African representatives of the Pipistrellini. Recent revisionary systematics utilizing mitochondrial, morphological, and morphometric data has clarified relationships and species limits in Laephotina (Laephotis, Neoromicia, Afronycteris, Pseudoromicia), correcting genus assignments and describing two new genera. However, genetic data from independent nuclear loci have been lacking to date. Using four independent nuclear introns to generate gene trees and species trees, we establish strong support for the monophyly of the four Laephotina genera and the sister relationship of Laephotis + Neoromicia. However, the relationships of Afronycteris and Pseudoromicia remain unresolved. Our results are consistent with mitochondrial, karyotypic, and bacular morphological data previously used to delimit Laephotina. We found strong support for Nycticeinops + Afropipistrellus as sister to Laephotina. Deep divergence between Nycticeinops and Afropipistrellus in nuclear introns adds to dental and bacular evidence for their recognition as separate genera.