Nimmi Seoraj-Pillai

Biodiversity across Africa faces escalating threats from agricultural expansion, urbanisation, resource overexploitation, and pollution, particularly at the margins of protected areas (PAs). These land‑use changes intensify interactions between people and wildlife by compressing habitats, increasing competition for space and resources, and disrupting ecological processes, thereby exacerbating human–wildlife conflict and threatening conservation outcomes. In this context, conservation practitioners play an important role in managing these conflicts by implementing conservation management interventions. A total of 49 conservation practitioners across KwaZulu‑Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga in South Africa were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to document the implementation of key conservation measures and to examine their association with practitioner-reported poaching occurrence. Most reserves implemented perimeter fencing and shared boundaries with adjacent local communities. Community engagement and environmental education programmes were also widely reported. The proportion of practitioners reporting poaching was highest in KwaZulu‑Natal (84.2%), followed by Limpopo (71%) and Mpumalanga (61.5%). Binary logistic regression revealed that community engagement was significantly associated with lower odds of poaching. Sustaining PAs requires integrated strategies that combine enforcement, community engagement, and adaptive management.

Background: Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) are emerging pathogens that affect human and animal health, yet their diversity, epidemiology, and clinical impact in Africa remain poorly synthesised. This systematic review aimed to map TBV diversity, quantify prevalence and seroprevalence, assess clinical outcomes, and evaluate the extent of One Health implementation in surveillance studies across Africa. Methods: We searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, CAB Abstracts, African Index Medicus, and grey literature up to 9 April 2026. Independent reviewers screened records, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias using the Joanna Briggs Institute tool for cross-sectional studies. The certainty of evidence was evaluated using GRADE. Heterogeneity was quantified using I², Cochran’s Q, and τ². Results: Forty-six studies (45 cross-sectional, 1 method development) from 35 African countries were included. Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) was the most frequently reported virus (22 studies), followed by African swine fever virus (ASFV, 5 studies) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV, 3 studies). Novel viruses (Kinna, Bogoria, Perkerra, Ntepes, Shibuyunji, Zaloxo) were also identified. Tick homogenate was the predominant sample type (62.9%). CCHFV minimum infection rates in ticks ranged from 0.13% to 11.3%, while livestock seroprevalence reached up to 98.2% (cattle) and 89.4% (camels). Human CCHFV seroprevalence in at-risk groups ranged from 1.9% to 11.8%, and Kinna virus showed a 38.6% seroprevalence among pastoralists. Only three studies (6.5%) explicitly adopted a One Health framework. Risk of bias was high in 71.7% of studies. Heterogeneity was considerable for CCHFV (I² = 99.9%), ASFV (I² = 99.4%), and JMTV (I² = 97.2%). GRADE certainty was very low for most viruses due to serious bias, inconsistency, indirectness, and imprecision. Conclusions: CCHFV appears to be widely distributed across Africa based on available evidence, although the certainty of this evidence is very low, particularly given high livestock exposure. The overall evidence is of very low to low certainty. However, 71.7% of studies were at high risk of bias, and GRADE certainty was very low for most viruses, indicating that findings should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating rather than definitive. Novel tick-associated viruses are increasingly detected, yet integrated One Health surveillance remains rare. Future studies should adopt probability-based sampling, confirmatory diagnostics, and multi-sectoral approaches to improve the quality of evidence and inform control strategies.

The Asiatic blue tick (Rhipicephalus microplus) has recently spread across South Africa, displacing the indigenou R. decoloratus and causing major economic and animal health losses. This review synthesises evidence on the tick’s range expansion, ecological drivers, acaricide resistance patterns and management implications. A narrative synthesis was conducted using published studies on tick distribution, climate suitability, livestock movements, communal grazing practices, population genetics, acaricide resistance and molecular diagnostics. Reports on climate projections, host movement and integrated parasite management were included. Range expansion of R. microplus is driven by climate suitability, cattle movement and communal grazing. The tick’s success is compounded by multimulti-classdecision-support tools, and research into alternative controls,multi- class decision-support class resistance across major acaricide groups. Population genetics reveal significant gene flow facilitated by livestock movement and predict further habitat expansion under climate change. Reliance on chemical control alone is unsustainable. Integrated parasite management—combining strategic acaricide rotation, targeted selective treatments, pasture management and strict biosecurity—is required. Recommendations include nationwide resistance monitoring, validation of molecular markers, development of farmer-focused decision support tools, and research into alternative controls such as vaccines.

Tick-borne diseases pose a significant threat to global cattle production, with species displacement between ticks compounding this issue. This narrative review synthesises the literature to examine the drivers behind the expansion of the invasive Rhipicephalus microplus and its displacement of the native Rhipicephalus decoloratus in Southern Africa. We analysed the biological, ecological, environmental, and anthropogenic factors by reviewing existing scientific studies and reports. Our findings indicate that R. microplus possesses a competitive advantage due to its shorter life cycle, higher reproductive output, and greater acaricide resistance. Furthermore, anthropogenic activities such as communal grazing practices, unregulated livestock movement, and land-use changes facilitate the spread of this parasite. Climate change and vegetation shifts also create more favourable habitats for this invasive species. The conclusion is that the displacement of R. decoloratus by R. microplus intensifies the burden of tick-borne diseases, leading to substantial economic losses. Effective mitigation requires an integrated tick management approach that combines chemical, biological, and ecological strategies, supported by improved surveillance and farmer education.

This study quantifies spatial patterns and socio-economic drivers of wildlife-related losses at the agricultural–conservation interface in north-eastern South Africa. Using structured interviews with 249 farmers across five localities (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal), 173 respondents reported wildlife incursions. Crop damage was dominated by primates vervet monkeys and chacma baboons while leopards were the principal game/livestock predator. Subsistence households bore the heaviest burden: they accounted for most crop-raiding reports. They faced heightened food-security risks, whereas commercial operations suffered larger monetary losses but had greater capacity to deploy deterrents. Irrigation was associated with increased conflict incidence, and electrified fencing reduced losses for some subsistence farms but was not uniformly effective in high-risk localities. Larger household size correlated with greater exposure to incursions than small households. We recommend targeted, locality-specific, multi-species mitigation: prioritise support and maintenance for effective deterrents in vulnerable communal areas, integrate community engagement and monitoring, and align conservation policy with livelihood resilience to reduce inequitable impacts.

The illegal wildlife trade remains a significant threat to biodiversity in South Africa. The poaching of native species in the country has increased over the years, primarily driven by the demand for abalone, rhino horns, and pangolin scales. This study analysed TRAFFIC wildlife crime records between 1984 and 2025 to identify hotspots, trends in enforcement over time, and the most affected species. We found that provinces such as Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal have the highest diversity of species affected, while the Western Cape recorded the highest number of incidents, predominantly seizures. Seizure was the most common wildlife activity, followed by poaching and illegal harvesting, with fewer cases of smuggling, breeding, and prosecution. A total of 50 species across nine animal classes were impacted, with white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum (Burchell, 1817)), abalone (Haliotis midae (Linnaeus, 1758)), lion (Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758)), and ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832)) among the most frequently targeted. Correlation analysis revealed a strong positive relationship between seizures and arrests (Pearson’s r = 0.90, p = 0.001) across provinces. This indicates a substantial strengthening of law-enforcement activity across provinces, likely driven by enhanced detection or reporting, as reflected in a rising proportion of cases resulting in arrests. Species such as elephants and pangolins were associated with enforcement outcomes, particularly those involving horns, tusks, scales, and dead specimens. There is a need for targeted interventions in high-risk areas, and provinces must collaborate in combating the wildlife trade. Limitations in data completeness and species representation suggest the need for improved surveillance and reporting mechanisms to fully understand and combat illegal wildlife trade in South Africa.

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) pose a significant threat to livestock productivity and rural livelihoods in South Africa, particularly among resource-poor communal farmers. This narrative review synthesises findings from case studies on communal farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) toward TBDs and their control. The analysis reveals that while many farmers can identify TBDs and their symptoms, significant gaps exist in understanding acaricide resistance and effective tick management. Socioeconomic factors, including age, gender, education, and access to veterinary services, strongly influence knowledge and practices. Indigenous ethnoveterinary practices are commonly used alongside conventional methods, although their efficacy remains understudied. The review emphasises the importance of integrated pest management, participatory approaches, and targeted awareness campaigns. A One Health framework is recommended to enhance surveillance, collaboration, and sustainable TBD control. Empowering farmers through training and inclusive communication strategies is crucial for mitigating the impacts of TBDs on communal farming systems.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) impose a heavy burden on South African livestock systems, particularly in resource-limited communal areas. Conventional acaricides are effective but face rising challenges of resistance, high costs, and concerns for environmental and human health. As a result, there is growing interest in plant-based tick control rooted in ethnoveterinary knowledge. This review examines the landscape of South African ethnoveterinary practices for tick control and assesses the supporting evidence of bioactivity and pathways for translating these remedies into safe, registered products. A narrative review method was applied, drawing on the literature (2000–2025) from databases and local repositories, with emphasis on South African studies documenting plant use against ticks. Communities in Limpopo, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and other provinces utilise a diverse range of botanicals (e.g., Lippia javanica, Tetradenia riparia, Clausena anisata, Tagetes minuta, Melia azedarach, Eucalyptus spp., Cymbopogon spp.) to repel or kill ticks, often through topical applications, fumigation, or livestock housing treatments. Laboratory assays have confirmed acaricidal or repellent activity in many of the cited taxa. For example, Lippia javanica and Tagetes minuta oils demonstrate strong tick repellency, while extracts of Tetradenia riparia and Calpurnia aurea exhibit greater than 70% mortality in vitro. Field studies are fewer but promising: a community-led trial with L. javanica leaf spray achieved substantial tick reduction (albeit slightly less efficacious than synthetic amitraz). Key gaps include standardisation of plant preparations, safety evaluations (toxicity and residue studies), and alignment with regulatory requirements. Recent regulatory updates in South Africa (Act 36 of 1947) underscore the need for quality, safety, and efficacy data but also create avenues for low-risk botanical remedies. Ethnoveterinary plants offer a culturally appropriate and eco-friendly complement to conventional acaricides. Bridging the gap to practical use will require multidisciplinary efforts: validating efficacy in well-designed field trials, ensuring consistency in preparation, assessing safety margins, and navigating registration pathways for plant-based stock remedies. With supportive policy and community engagement, South Africa could pioneer farmer-ready botanical acaricides that mitigate resistance, reduce costs, and advance One Health objectives.

Rhipicephalus microplus, also known as the Asiatic blue tick, is an invasive ectoparasite of significant economic and animal health importance in South Africa. This review synthesises evidence on its ongoing range expansion, which is displacing the native R. decoloratus, driven by factors including climate suitability, livestock movement, and communal grazing practices. The tick’s success is compounded by widespread, multi-class acaricide resistance, which has been documented across all major chemical classes. Molecular diagnostics are crucial for accurate surveillance, and population genetics reveal significant gene flow facilitated by livestock movement. Projections indicate that climate change will further expand the tick’s suitable habitat. Current reliance on chemical control is unsustainable. We conclude that an integrated parasite management (IPM) approach combining strategic acaricide rotation, targeted selective treatments, pasture management, and strict biosecurity is critical for sustainable control. Key recommendations include establishing standardised, national resistance monitoring, validating molecular markers for resistance prediction, and developing farmer-facing decision-support tools. This synthesis provides a framework for research and policy to mitigate the impact of R. microplus at the wildlife-livestock interface in South Africa.

Lead (Pb) poisoning poses a significant threat to wildlife. A primary cause of Pb poisoning is the unintentional ingestion of Pb ammunition and fishing weights, which are still used for hunting and fishing in numerous regions globally. While the effects of Pb poisoning on birds and mammals are well established, impacts on reptiles are less well documented and difficult to assess under field conditions. In this study, we investigated the effects of extreme Pb exposure on captive sub-adult Nile crocodiles ( Crocodylus niloticus ; n = 18). We administered Pb dosages in the form of fishing weights (54–215 g) and monitored changes in blood lead concentrations, packed cell volumes, urine Pb concentrations, growth, and body condition over a 48-week period. Crocodiles exhibited a remarkable tolerance to exceptionally high Pb exposure over the duration of the study. Despite the lack of obvious clinical signs of Pb toxicity, elevated BPb concentrations were linked to lower PCVs, indicating anaemia across all treatment groups by week eight. However, crocodiles showed a sustained erythropoietic response which may be contributing to their resilience to acute Pb toxicity. While Pb exposure did not significantly affect body condition, it was associated with a discernible reduction in weight gain over the duration of the study. Our estimation of a 5.8–7.3-year timeframe for complete dissolution of the Pb fishing weights in the experimental crocodiles’ stomachs carries significant implications for wild populations, which are likely to be exposed to Pb for far longer than 48-week duration of this study.