Andrea Révész

Delivery mode of language tests relates to context validity of a test as how the test is administered affects the environment in which test takers perform the task and hence also influences their processes of completing the test task. In response to the digitalisation of academic writing in higher education (HE), the study aims to examine the validity argument evidence for two electronic delivery modes of the IELTS Academic Writing Task 2, that is, computer and tablet, in relation to three aspects: test scores and text quality features of writing performance, writing processes and test takers’ experience between completing the test on a computer and on a tablet. To address these goals, we examined whether and, if so, in what way, test takers’ performance is impacted by delivery mode. We also investigated the cognitive processes of L2 test takers performing the IELTS Academic Writing Task 2 on a computer and on a tablet, informed by models of writing (Kellogg, 1996; Shaw & Weir, 2007). Test takers’ experience and their overall perception of using a tablet to complete a writing test task was surveyed. Based on the findings, recommendations for the provision of a tablet-delivery mode in high-stakes assessment are provided.

This study examined how the location of silent pausing (mid- vs. end-clause) may relate to neural processes during spontaneous L1 and L2 speech production. Twenty intermediate-level Japanese speakers of L2 English carried out eight monologic, oral decision-making tasks, four in English and four in Japanese. While completing the tasks, their brain activity was recorded through fMRI scanning. Participants’ speech was transcribed, and the resulting transcripts were annotated for mid- and end-clause silent pauses. Then, for the pauses identified, we conducted whole-brain analyses to identify relevant activation patterns, followed by region-of-interest analyses in language-related areas. We found that mid-clause pauses were linked to increased activation in language-related brain regions, with stronger effects for L2 speech. We also observed heightened activity in conceptualisation-related brain areas at end-clause positions in both L1 and L2 speech. In L2 English, participants also displayed greater activation in a concept-retrieval-related brain region in end-clause than in mid-clause position.

Research on how cognitive and affective factors shape bilinguals’ moral judgments in their first (L1) and second (L2) languages remains limited. This study advances our understanding of both language-related variables (L2 proficiency, age of onset of L2 acquisition, length of L2 immersion) and nonlinguistic variables (emotional intelligence, executive functions) in relation to the moral judgments and emotional intensity experienced by 90 Chinese–English bilingual speakers. Participants read five moral dilemmas and completed a set of questionnaires and cognitive ability tests. Mixed-effects models revealed no evidence of a moral foreign language effect, raising questions about the robustness of this phenomenon. Specifically, neither language-related variables nor emotional intelligence had a significant effect. However, participants with stronger updating ability made more deontological judgments in both their L1 and L2, while those with better inhibitory control also made more deontological decisions, but only in their L1. These findings offer new insights into the relationship between language and cognition.

This study explored the effects of repeating a video-lecture-based task on second language (L2) learners’ input processing and the relationship between online processing patterns and lecture comprehension. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The comparison group ( n = 30) performed the task once, whereas the repetition group ( n = 30) repeated the same task three times, with each group completing a free-recall test after their last performance. The stimulated-recall participants ( n = 15) completed the task once, twice, or three times and described their thought processes during their last task performance. The lecture featured an instructor introducing fundamental concepts of neurobiology with labeled diagrams. Participants’ visual attention to the instructor and diagrams was captured using an eye-tracker. Results revealed an increase in learners’ visual attention to the instructor and a decline in their visual attention to the diagrams across repetitions. Additionally, more visual attention to the instructor was related to lower comprehension.

This study examined if gaze‐contingent textual enhancement could be used as an interactive focus‐on‐form device to promote learning of second language (L2) collocations from computer‐mediated reading tasks. Seventy‐five Chinese ESL users read three English texts that contained twelve target collocations, presented under one of three conditions: no highlighting, proactive highlighting (target collocations highlighted in advance), and gaze‐contingent highlighting (target collocations highlighted when looked at). Participants' eye movements were captured during the reading task, and collocation form recall and recognition tests were administered immediately after and 2 weeks later. Additionally, five participants from each group took part in a stimulated recall session, eliciting their thoughts while reading. The results indicated that both highlighting techniques increased total fixation duration and count on the target collocations and improved collocation form recall and recognition scores in the posttests. Gaze‐contingent highlighting demonstrated a more durable impact on the collocation recall test compared to proactive highlighting. The stimulated recall comments also revealed that gaze‐contingent highlighting tended to promote attentive processing of the target collocations. These findings suggest that highlighting is a useful focus‐on‐form technique in task‐based reading contexts, with gaze‐contingent highlighting yielding potential benefits in terms of L2 collocation learning.

Aims: This study investigated the role of moral identity in bilinguals’ moral judgements and emotions in their first (L1) and second language (L2) and the reasons underlying their moral choices.Methodology: An embedded mixed-methods design was used to obtain the data. Ninety Chinese–English bilinguals read a series of moral dilemmas, provided a moral decision, and described their emotions and the reasons underlying their moral choices. They also completed measures of moral identity and language proficiency. The study was pre-registered prior to data collection and analysis.Data Analysis: The data obtained was analysed by means of mixed effects logistic regression models, Chi-squared tests, and content analysis. Findings: The results cast doubt on the robustness of the moral foreign language effect. Having a strong moral self led to stronger emotions regardless of the language used. Moreover, a strong moral self was linked to a greater self-reported willingness to return the money found in a lost wallet. Qualitative analysis of moral arguments suggested honesty, trust, integrity, fairness, and conflict avoidance were some of the moral principles that our participants prioritised. This analysis further highlighted the role of causal attributions and anticipation mechanisms in determining moral choices. Originality: This is the first study that analyses moral arguments in response to both realistic and unrealistic dilemmas, and among the very few that address moral identity in bilinguals’ moral choices. Implications: Attempts to quantify L1 and L2 (moral) reasoning via yes/no or Likert-type responses may not be enough. The mechanisms underlying (moral) decision-making may be best discovered by asking people to explain their emotions and moral choices. Therefore, this study highlights the need to accommodate more qualitative approaches in the study of the moral foreign language effect.

This paper argues that TBLT researchers should dedicate more effort to investigating the cognitive processes in which L2 learners engage during task work to facilitate theory-construction and to inform pedagogical practices. To help achieve this, a review follows of various subjective (questionnaires, interviews, think-aloud/stimulated recall protocols) and objective (dual-task methodology, keystroke-logging, eye-tracking) methods that are available to TBLT researchers to examine cognitive processes underlying task-based performance. The paper concludes that, to obtain a more valid understanding of task-generated cognitive processes, it is best to combine various methods to overcome the limitations of each. Finally, some methodological recommendations are provided for future cognitively-oriented TBLT research.