Florentina Johanna Hettinga

An athlete's pacing strategy can be defined as when and how to use their available energy, and is widely recognised as an essential determinant for road as well as track cycling. Many factors play a role in choosing the optimal strategy and tactics for the different events that the cycling sport comprises, ranging from sprinting on the track to multi-stage races in the Tour de France, including hilly and windy terrains and riding in teams. Both internal (e.g., fatigue, motivation, and available energy resources) as well as external factors (e.g., environmental conditions and other competing cyclists) play a role in determining which pacing strategy or tactical adaptations would lead to a win ( Smits et al ., 2016 ).

Background: Self-regulation is key to excelling in individual sports. However, little is known about the use of self-regulatory skills when athletes perform within teams ( group-based self-regulation ), where collaboration with teammates is required. Insight into an athlete’s success orientation, focusing on personal versus team success, might help understanding whether and how athletes adapt their self-regulatory skills in team events. Aims: (1) Examine differences between individual and group-based self-regulation of endurance athletes within teams, stratified by success orientation. (2) Explore the relationship between behavior, satisfaction, and performance within teams. Methods: Twenty-nine competitive long-track speed skaters (14 males, 15 females), aged 16 (15–16) years, skated an individual time trial (1500 m) and a team pursuit, consisting of skating three laps in a team of three skaters. Participants completed questionnaires on individual and group-based self-regulation, including the skills reflection, planning, evaluation, effort, self-efficacy, speaking up, coaching, and questions on general team behavior and satisfaction. Differences between individual and group-based self-regulation were tested with Two Related Samples Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test and the relationship between behavior, satisfaction, and performance were explored with Spearman’s rho correlations ( p n =18), mixed ( n =11), and team ( n =0). Athletes engaged more in coaching each other when performing within teams and only athletes more focused on team success adapted planning strategies when tasked with a team performance ( p <0.05). Considerable variation in behavior, satisfaction, and performance highlights the complexities of team performance. Conclusion: Group-based self-regulation (planning, coaching) may be used to navigate these complexities and improve team performance.

Purpose: In long-track speed skating, specifically team events, drafting is crucial for success. Although skaters and coaches are aware of the benefits of drafting, the lack of a practical protocol to assess on-ice drafting skills inhibits skill-specific training. The aim of this research is to develop a practical protocol to assess on-ice drafting skills in skating (DRAFT) and evaluate its reliability and validity. Method: A video-based protocol was developed to assess three key drafting skills: distance between the skaters, following in a straight line, and takeover in the corner. This research assessed the drafting skills of 29 junior speed skaters (14 male, 15 female; 16 ± 1 years old; 7.4 ± 1.6 years skating experience). Intra- and inter-rater reliability (relative and absolute) and concurrent validity were established. Discriminative validity was tested by grouping skaters (good, moderate, poor) via expert ratings and analyzed using one-way ANOVA ( p < .05). Results: Relative reliability was excellent (ICCs > .91, p < .01) in all drafting skills. Absolute reliability was good, except for intra-rater reliability in distance between skaters (95% CI [0.02, 0.06], t (21) = 5.25, p < .001, d = 1.12). Concurrent validity was supported for distance between the skaters ( ρ = −0.66, p = .01) and following in a straight line ( ρ = 0.89, p < .001), but not for takeover (ρ = –.18, p = .52). These drafting skills showed a significant between-group difference, with better scores for good drafters ( p < .05), no such differences were found for takeover ( p = .63). Conclusions: The innovative and practical protocol DRAFT can be used for analyzing drafting skills on straightaways, while more research is needed on the corners. The protocol enables targeted training to optimize performance in long-track speed skating.

Objectives This study aimed to (1) examine if activity fluctuations over 1 week differ between two groups: individuals who have received fatigue management advice versus those who have not, (2) examine the associations between activity fluctuations and fatigue, engagement in pacing, perceived risk of overactivity, quality of life, self-regulation and physical activity (PA) and if they differ for the two groups and (3) explore whether there are distinct pacing patterns across the week in adults with chronic conditions. Design Exploratory cross-sectional observational study. Setting Participants were recruited from a fatigue management clinic in the UK and through university networks. Participants 29 adults with chronic conditions who experience fatigue (18 received fatigue management advice; 11 did not). Primary and secondary outcome measures The primary outcome was activity fluctuations (SD of accelerometer-derived vector magnitude counts per minute), measured using the ActiGraph wGT3X-BT over 7 consecutive days. Secondary outcomes included fatigue (Fatigue Severity Scale), engagement in activity pacing, perceived risk of overactivity, quality of life (Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General Instrument), self-regulation of PA (Physical Activity Self-Regulation scale) and self-reported PA (International Physical Activity Questionnaire-short form). Results No difference in activity fluctuations during the day was found between groups. Associations between self-regulation of PA and device-based PA with activity fluctuations significantly differed between groups (respectively, standardised regression (β)=1686.14; p=0.006 and β=288.83; p=0.042). Five distinct activity pacing patterns were identified through visual inspection of individual activity profiles: (1) high fluctuations in the morning, (2) high fluctuations in the afternoon, (3) high fluctuations at two time points, (4) consistent pacing pattern and (5) varied pacing patterns. Conclusions Individuals who received fatigue management advice demonstrated significant associations between activity fluctuations and self-regulation, suggesting a goal-directed approach, which could indicate that tailored support and goal setting could help in balancing rest and activity. This study also identified five distinct activity pacing patterns in individuals with chronic conditions, emphasising the need for tailored fatigue management instead of a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach. Trial registration number NCT06001970.

Background: This study aimed to identify the Greatest of All Time (GOAT) athlete in running events held at the Olympic Games and World Athletics championships. Methods: The achievements of 1294 men and 824 women who won at least one medal in any sprint, hurdles, or distance event at major global championships since 1896, or set a World Record (WR) since 1912, were collated. A scoring system was used to award points, with Olympic gold medals and WRs ranked joint highest. Fewer points were awarded for Olympic silver and bronze medals and for medals in World Championships (outdoor, indoor, and cross-country). Bonus points were awarded for WR longevity and the setting of WRs during Olympic finals. Athletes were also ranked by event and within historical eras. Results: As of March 2026, Usain Bolt (Jamaica) was ranked as the male GOAT, and the highest-scoring woman was Faith Kipyegon (Kenya). Both athletes notably won “doubles” during their careers (over 100/200 m and 1500 m/5000 m, respectively) and set WRs over both distances. Marathon, steeplechase, and hurdle specialists usually competed in one event only. In an earlier era, Paavo Nurmi (Finland) had the highest combined Olympic Games/WR score across a range of distances. Conclusions: Athletes who successfully competed over physiologically and tactically similar events (“doubles”), such as Bolt and Kipyegon, had a greater opportunity to become the GOAT. An increase in global competition since 1972 meant greater opportunities for winning medals, especially for women. This study provides a foundation on which future performances could be evaluated.

The physiological and placebo effects of beetroot juice remain unclear in settings outside traditional laboratory environments. Using a randomized, between-participant balanced placebo design, we asked 67 trained cyclists to complete 20-min time-trials on a virtual cycling platform with the ingestion of either beetroot juice or placebo (~552 or ~0.2 mg nitrate, respectively). After completing baseline trials, participants were randomized to one of four experimental groups: 1) informed beetroot juice/given beetroot juice (BRJ/BRJ), 2) informed beetroot juice/given placebo (BRJ/PLA), 3) informed placebo/given beetroot juice (PLA/BRJ), and 4) informed placebo/given placebo (PLA/PLA). Mean (± standard deviation) changes in power output (W) between baseline and experimental trials for each group were: BRJ/BRJ = 2.06 ± 2.81, BRJ/PLA = 4.29 ± 2.81, PLA/BRJ = -0.12 ± 2.81, PLA/PLA = 3.06 ± 2.90. Linear mixed-effects models revealed that neither the expectation, actual supplementation, or the interaction between expectation and supplement changed between baseline and experimental trials for all groups (χ² ≤5.15, all p ≥.05). Similar results were found for relative power, speed, distance, heart rate and cadence (χ² ≤5.15, all p ≥.05). Our results suggest that in comparison to baseline, cycling performance over 20‑min virtual time‑trials did not change when participants received an acute dose of beetroot juice both openly and deceptively. Similarly, the expectation that beetroot juice had been received did not change any outcomes. In short, physiological and placebo effects of an acute dose of beetroot juice did not change 20-min time-trial performance during a virtual cycling platform.

We aimed to investigate whether cycling competition influences performance and pacing compared to an individual time trial. The second aim was to determine whether performance is further influenced by deceptive or accurate augmented feedback, delivered as an opponent riding at 2% higher power outputs than a previous competitive time trial. Ventilatory, metabolic and perceptual responses were examined. Twelve male cyclists completed six laboratory sessions: (1) incremental test and familiarisation; (2) baseline 20‐min individual time trial; (3–4) time trial against a virtual opponent replicating the baseline performance (Competition _BSL ); and (5–6) augmented feedback trials against an opponent riding at 2% higher power outputs than Competition _BSL , presented as either Accurate (participants informed of the 2% increase) or Deception (told the opponent may have received an ergogenic aid). Power output, pacing, gas exchange, blood lactate, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and motivation were recorded. Power output was higher only during Accurate ( P =  0.032) compared to Baseline, accompanied by higher perceived exertion and . Relative to Baseline, no differences were observed in , , heart rate, RER, post‐exercise blood lactate concentration, or motivation in any condition. Linear mixed‐effects modelling indicated a curvilinear pacing across time, with no differences in pacing curve between conditions. Our findings may indicate that competitive framing, rather than the mere presence of an opponent, influenced performance during fixed‐duration cycling time trial.

Physical activity (PA) breaks, separate from recess or physical education, provide opportunities for schools to increase children's PA. However, their effectiveness on executive function (EF), perceptual and behavioural responses remain unclear, and challenges integrating PA breaks into the school day persist. In this 3-week, repeated measures study, 120 children (Years 2-6, 6-11 years old) from one UK primary school completed three conditions: playground games (designed with input from pupils and teachers), usual practice (The Daily Mile), and sedentary control. EF, arousal, affect, effort, and enjoyment were measured before, immediately after, and 45-min post-condition. Children's evaluations and teacher-rated class behaviour were also assessed. There were no significant differences between conditions for EF (p > 0.05). However, in the playground games condition, children reported higher pre-activity arousal, greater exertion during activity, and more positive affect overall compared to usual practice and control (p's < 0.05). Children rated the playground games break as more enjoyable, but less feasible to implement, than usual practice (p's < 0.05). Teacher-rated class behaviour did not differ across conditions (p's > 0.05). Findings suggest that novel, participant-orientated PA breaks of different type and duration can match traditional routines in cognitive and behavioural outcomes while enhancing enjoyment and engagement.

The aim of this chapter is to provide an insight into the history, classifications, and physiological characteristics of competitive handcycling. Furthermore, based on the evidence available, this chapter aims to provide practical training suggestions by which to develop handcycling performance. Handbike configuration, individual physiological characteristics, and training history all play a significant role in determining handcycling performance. The optimal handcycling technique is highly dependent upon handbike configuration. As such, seat positioning, crank height, crank fore-aft position, crank length, and handgrip position must all be individually configured. In regard to physiological determinants, power output at a fixed blood lactate concentration (B[La]) of 4 mmol·l⁻¹, peak aerobic power output, relative upper body strength, and maximal anaerobic power output have all been demonstrated to impact upon handcycling performance capabilities. Therefore, it is suggested that an emphasis be placed on the development and frequent monitoring of these parameters. Finally, linked to handcycling training, it is suggested that handcyclists should consider adopting a concurrent strength and endurance training approach, based upon a block periodisation model that employs a mixture of endurance, threshold, interval, and strength training sessions.