Vitalii Ishchenko

The relevance of this study stems from the growing environmental risks associated with the formation of leachate from municipal solid waste landfills and its migration into groundwater and adjacent soils. Leachate is a complex, multicomponent system containing organic substances, nitrogen compounds, and heavy metals, which are characterized by high toxicity, cumulative properties, and the ability to migrate over long distances in the environment. Of particular concern is the growing proportion of waste electrical and electronic equipment in landfills, which serves as an additional source of heavy metals. The purpose of this study is to assess the environmental safety of landfill leachate and to identify patterns in the change in heavy metal content over time depending on the morphological composition of the waste. The study was conducted based on experimental data obtained in two model reactors (Fig. 1)—R1, which contained only municipal solid waste, and R3, to which waste electrical and electronic equipment (1% by mass) was added. The concentrations of copper, zinc, manganese, nickel, and lead were determined in the leachate samples using standard analytical methods. To interpret the results, mathematical modeling methods were applied to analyze the dynamics of changes in heavy metal concentrations over time. The research results showed that the leachate from the P1 model reactor exhibits a trend toward a gradual decrease in heavy metal concentrations over time, which can be described by exponential relationships and is explained by processes of sorption, precipitation, and biogeochemical transformation. For reactor P3, higher initial metal concentrations and a slower rate of decline were observed, indicating a negative impact of electronic waste on the self-purification processes of the leachate. The practical significance of this work lies in the possibility of using the identified patterns to predict groundwater and soil contamination in areas affected by landfills and to justify environmental protection measures.

The analytical review is aimed at an expanded study of modern concepts and practical solutions for the management of polymer components of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), which form rapidly growing technogenic flows and are characterized by increased material and technological complexity. Polymer fractions in WEEE are characterized by low suitability for reuse due to their multicomponent composition, the presence of toxic functional additives, heterogeneous morphology and difficulties in separation from metal, ceramic and composite elements, which exacerbates the problem of transfer of persistent organic pollutants, halogen-containing compounds and thermal degradation products into the environment. Within the framework of the research analysis, infrastructure schemes for the collection and primary treatment of WEEE, including municipal logistics hubs, stationary and mobile collection points, deposit-return mechanisms and extended producer responsibility instruments, were considered, with an assessment of their effectiveness and key limitations. Considerable attention is paid to high-tech solutions, including optical identification systems, robotic dismantling modules, digital trajectory platforms for tracking material flows, intelligent container complexes and sensor Smart Bins. The engineering practices of leading world companies that implement closed polymer cycles, use automated reverse logistics chains and ensure a high level of selective extraction of material fractions are analyzed. The experience of European WEEE pre-processing centers that operate in accordance with EU regulatory standards and demonstrate effective models of selective preparation of polymers for further use is highlighted. Based on the generalized results, a set of scientifically based recommendations has been formed to improve the efficiency of WEEE polymer component management, which involves the integration of innovative technologies, regulatory practices and circular economy principles to minimize environmental risks and improve the resource cycle.

Landfill leachate is one of the main sources of heavy metal contamination of soil and surface water. In this study, leachate formation was modeled in laboratory conditions using two experimental systems: a control system (without additional contaminants) and a system with the addition of crushed batteries. The content of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) was analyzed in eight samples taken between November 2023 and July 2024. Curve equations and nonlinear curve equations of metal content changes over time were constructed to present a visual result. It was found that the addition of batteries significantly increases the concentrations of Mn (average 8.55 mg/L) and Ni (0.55 mg/L). The control system shows high variability of Zn (38.52 mg/L). The results highlight the risk of contamination from hazardous waste and the need to strengthen control over its disposal. The modeling system presented can also be used to study the impact of other various pollutants.

Currently, developing countries like China or Ukraine lack effective waste batteries collection. The purpose of this study is to analyse the waste battery collection systems in developed countries and suggest the improvements for the waste battery collection systems in developing countries. Relevant literature on waste batteries management through academic databases, government reports, and industry research channels was analysed. Several developed countries were selected as case studies for in-depth comparative analysis, focusing on the current situation of waste battery collection, including management policies, market size, technological level, etc.The differences in waste battery collection models between developing and developed countries have been compared. By analysing successful cases, some best practices were summarized and used for improving the collection of waste batteries in developing countries.The advices for waste batteries collection system in China have been suggested (including collection points, logistics, etc.) in order to provide reference for the standardization and revision of waste batteries collection in China. The recommendations on separate collection of different types of waste batteries were also developed. This has great practical significance since can help developing countries to achieve waste management goals.The scientific novelty of this study is that waste batteries collection system has been optimised based on the suggestions for developing countries, while providing efficient waste management. Through a sound pricing strategy and a reasonable logistics system, the collection system for waste batteries has been standardized, facilitating macro level management at the national level, avoiding environmental pollution, and increasing user enthusiasm.As a next step, the development of relevant recommendations for local authorities and business can be suggested.

Industrialization and advancement of living standards are increased rapidly driving the refrigerants market. In many countries, old-type refrigerants (including those not accepted in new equipment) are still in wide use. For domestic refrigeration, R134a and R600a are mainly used, their share is around 26% of total refrigerants amount. The purpose of this research is to assess the recovery potential and contribution of refrigerants to global warming through the calculation of their residual volumes in old equipment using household fridges as a case study. A comprehensive analysis of old household fridges in Ukraine was conducted: 42 household fridges (in use) were studied. Apart of R600a and R134a refrigerants as the most widely used, some very old household fridges contain R12 refrigerant. Generally, refrigerant content ranges from 0.032 to 0.175 kg per item with average value 0.075 kg. The average R134a content is higher comparing to R600a: 0.115 and 0.058 kg per item, respectively. The residual weight of R134a and R600a refrigerants in one fridge was estimated at 0.058 and 0.029 kg, respectively. Taking into account the number of waste household fridges, the average annual amount of residual R600a refrigerant is higher (1.4 tonnes) comparing to R134a (about 1 tonne). Total refrigerant recovery potential for domestic refrigeration was estimated at 2 tonnes per year (counting 80% recycling rate). Due to the lack of separate collection of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Ukraine, both the residual refrigerant and its loss contribute to greenhouse gas emission, which was estimated at about 2652 tonnes of CO2-equivalent/year with R134a refrigerant as the main contributor. This data can be used for improvement of waste household fridges and residual refrigerant management.

Nowadays, the recycling of polymers, including those contained in waste electrical and electronic equipment, is relevant. The possibility and method of polymer recycling depend on their composition and properties. The purpose of this study is to analyse the composition of the main polymeric components of e-waste, typical impurities, and their impact on the properties of materials based on literature data. The article discusses the chemical composition of polymers used in electrical and electronic equipment, in particular acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), styrene-acrylonitrile resin (SAN), polycarbonate (PC), polyurethane (PU), polyamide (PA), polyoxymethylene (POM), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT). It is investigated that large appliances and devices, monitors, and TVs of the old model (with a cathode ray tube) contain the smallest number of different polymers - up to 10 different types, while in other devices the number of different polymers is much higher. Typical impurities included in the composition of each of these polymers are also analysed: antioxidants, stabilizers, plasticizers, fillers, dyes, modifiers, and residual monomers. In particular, the impurities include several potentially hazardous substances that can cause environmental risks in the further management of waste electrical and electronic equipment. We have identified shortcomings that can reduce the productivity of further recycling: the lack of polymer identification marks, the use of several different types of polymers in one type of equipment, and the combination of plastic and metal in the equipment, which creates problems for the recycling of both fractions. Further research should be aimed at developing safer polymer modifications and efficient methods of recycling. На сьогодні актуальним є рециклінг полімерів, в тому числі тих, які містяться у відходах електричного та електронного обладнання. Можливість і метод переробки полімерів залежить від їхнього складу і властивостей. Мета цього дослідження – проаналізувати на основі літературних даних склад основних полімерних компонентів електронних відходів, типові домішки та їх вплив на властивості матеріалів. У статті розглянуто хімічний склад полімерів, які застосовуються у електричному та електронному обладнанні, зокрема: акрилонітрил-бутадієн-стирол (ABS), полівінілхлорид (PVC), полістирол (PS), поліетилен (PE), поліпропілен (PP), поліетилентерефталат (PET), стирол-акрилонітрильна смола (SAN), полікарбонат (PC), поліуретан (PU), поліамід (PA), поліоксиметилен (POM), поліметилметакрилат (PMMA), полібутилентерефталат (PBT). Досліджено, що великі прилади і пристрої, монітори та телевізори старого зразка (з електронно-променевою трубкою) містять найменшу кількість різних полімерів – до 10 різних типів, тоді як у інших приладах кількість різних полімерів значно більша. Також проаналізовано типові домішки, що входять до складу кожного з цих полімерів: антиоксиданти, стабілізатори, пластифікатори, наповнювачі, барвники, модифікатори та залишкові мономери. Зокрема, серед домішок – ряд потенційно небезпечних речовин, що може викликати екологічні ризики при подальшому управлінні відходами електричного та електронного обладнання. Визначені недоліки, які можуть знизити продуктивність подальшої утилізації: відсутність ідентифікаційних знаків полімеру, використання декількох різних типів полімеру в одному типі обладнання, а також поєднання пластику та металу в обладнанні, що створює проблеми для переробки обох фракцій. Подальші дослідження повинні бути спрямовані на розробку більш безпечних модифікацій полімерів та ефективних методів їх переробки.

The production, use and recycling of spent alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries has been systematically analyzed, including key economic, environmental, technical/technological and social issues. It is shown that modern technologies for waste battery recycling include mechanical separation, pyro- and hydrometallurgical technologies, as well as a biotechnological method. Mechanical separation is the first stage of battery recycling, which usually includes preliminary grinding to separate metallic components from non-metallic. Their joint use allows for the isolation/regeneration of a significant share of the basic metals used in the battery operation. However, this process generates secondary gas emissions, a large amount of wastewater and solid residues, which also require processing or disposal. The advantages/disadvantages of existing technologies and possible ways of their improving are discussed. It is shown that the unification of spent alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries processing can ensure their effective recycling due to the use of automated, robotic lines, which will significantly increase the efficiency and safety of such technology. Thermal destruction of the plastic-paper fraction extracted from battery using low-temperature pyrolysis has been studied in many research. As a result of thermal decomposition of the plastic-paper mixture, pyrolysis liquid (68.2 wt.%), pyrocarbon (23.1 wt.%) and gas mixture (8.1 wt.%) are generated. The effectiveness of hydrometallurgical technology in the processing of spent zinc-carbon batteries is analyzed. It provides the manganese cathode regeneration or generation of chemical compounds of satisfactory quality. The review largely indicates possible promising areas of research into the joint processing of alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries. Проведено системний аналіз виробництва, використання та переробки відпрацьованих лужних і сольових джерел струму, який включає ключові економічні, екологічні, технічні/технологічні і соціальні питання цієї важливої проблеми. Показано, що сучасні технології переробки відпрацьованих хімічних джерел струму включають механічне розділення, піро- та гідрометалургійні технології, а також біотехнологічний метод. Механічне розділення, яке зазвичай включає попереднє подрібнення з метою відокремлення металевих компонентів від неметалевих, слугує першою стадією їх рециклінгу. Комбіноване їх застосування дозволяє виділяти/регенерувати значну частину основних металів, використаних для роботи хімічних джерел струму. Проте при цьому утворюються вторинні газові викиди, велика кількість промивних вод і твердих залишків, які також потребують перероблення або знешкодження. Обговорюються переваги та недоліки існуючих технологій, а також можливі шляхи їх удосконалення. Показано, що уніфікація переробки відпрацьованих лужних та сольових хімічних джерел струму може забезпечити ефективну їх утилізацію з використанням автоматизованих, роботизованих ліній, що суттєво підвищить ефективність та безпеку такої технології. В низці наукових робіт досліджено термодеструкцію виділеної пластико-паперової фракції з використанням низькотемпературного піролізу. Показано, що в результаті термічного розкладання означеної суміші утворюється піролізна рідина (68,2 % мас.), пірокарбон (23,1 % мас.) та газова суміш (8,1 % мас.). Системно проаналізовано ефективність використання гідрометалургійної технології під час перероблення відпрацьованих манган-цинкових хімічних джерел струму для відновлення манганового катоду, або для утворення хімічних сполук задовільної якості. Огляд значною міроюі вказує на можливі перспективні напрямки дослідження сумісної переробки сольових та лужних хімічних джерел струму.

An environmental impact of waste batteries was analysed (focusing on certain types like nickel-cadmium, lead-acid batteries). The study also adopts a quantitative analysis method, combined with China's battery production, sales, import and export data (2014–2023), and obtains data through the United Nations Commodity Trade Database and the China Battery Association report. The Weibull life distribution model was used to estimate the waste battery generation in China. The calculation is also based on the average lifetime and recycling rate of batteries. China's imports of batteries generally showed a downward trend, while exports showed an upward trend, especially lithium batteries (both primary and lithium-ion rechargeable). With a constant increase in batteries production, amount of batteries on Chinese market has grown during last 10 years, although some battery types (lead-acid, nickel-cadmium) demonstrate reduction due to the replacement with other batteries. According to our calculations, waste lithium batteries (driven by the new energy industry) and lead-acid batteries (huge stock market) are the main contributors to waste battery volume growth, covering 99% of around 10.5 million tons of waste battery generation in China. Further research prospects are to introduce more variables (such as technological progress and consumer habits) to improve the waste battery generation prediction model through dynamic model optimization.

Ukraine has accumulated a significant amount of nonserviceable pesticides, in the process of their disposal the possibility of extracting valuable resources should be taken into consideration. At the same time, statistical data on the volume of non-serviceable pesticides formation are fragmented and incomplete. The total weight of pesticides used in Ukraine can be estimated at approximately 105 thousands t/year: herbicides — 60 000 t/year, fungicides — 17 000 t/year, insecticides — 10 000 t/year, others — 18 000 t/year. Among the pesticides used in Ukraine, the largest share is accounted for by those based on the active substance acetochlor (13 % of all active substances). The authors estimate that about 4—5 tons of pesticides end up in waste. Besides, some unknown amount of waste pesticides is formed in households. The article analyzes two main ways of resource recovery from waste pesticides: obtaining a useful product through chemical/ physicochemical transformations; using the products of pesticide incineration. Chemical transformations using active oxidation, photolysis, etc. allow obtaining valuable chemical products, for example, cyanuric acid (from nitrogen-containing pesticides), solvents (acetone, ethyl alcohol, ethyl acetate, isopropyl alcohol), chemical raw materials for the fertilizers production (from phosphate-containing pesticides). Some waste pesticides can be used as plant growth stimulants. The products of chemical decomposition of acetochlor, dimethachlor, propisochlor and other similar pesticides may have further application, for example, for alcohols production. However, the use of chemical methods requires the ability to accurately identify waste pesticides. Those pesticides accumulated over the past years are hardly possible to identify and the only way is the incineration. This method produces ash that can be used for road construction or as a foundation filler. This method is simpler, more affordable, and does not require pesticide separation. В Україні накопичена значна кількість непридатних пестицидів, під час утилізації яких необхідно враховувати можливість вилучення з них корисних складових. При цьому, статистичні дані щодо обсягів утворення непридатних пестицидів є фрагментарними і неповними. Загальний обсяг пестицидів, які використовуються в Україні, можна приблизно оцінити у 105 тис. т/рік: гербіциди — 60 тис. т/рік, фунгіциди — 17 тис. т/рік, інсектициди — 10 тис. т/рік, інші — 18 тис. т/рік. Серед пестицидів, які використовуються в Україні, найбільша частка припадає на препарати на основі діючої речовини ацетохлору (13 % серед усіх діючих речовин). Авторами оцінено, що близько 4—5 тонн пестицидів потрапляє у відходи. До цього, деяка невідома кількість непридатних пестицидів утворюється у домогосподарствах. У статті проаналізовані два основних напрямки отримання ресурсів з непридатних пестицидів: отримання корисного продукту шляхом хімічних/фізико-хімічних перетворень; використання продуктів спалювання пестицидів. Хімічні перетворення з використанням методів активного окиснення, фотолізу тощо дозволяють отримати цінні хімічні продукти, до прикладу: ціанурову кислоту (з азотвмісних пестицидів), розчинники (ацетон, спирт етиловий, етилацетат, спирт ізопропіловий), хімічну сировину для виробництва добрив (з фосфатвмісних пестицидів). Деякі непридатні пестициди можуть бути використані як стимулятори росту рослин. Продукти хімічного розкладання ацетохлору, диметахлору, пропізохлору та інших подібних пестицидів можуть мати подальше застосування, наприклад, для отримання спиртів. Проте використання хімічних методів для утилізації пестицидів потребує можливості точної ідентифікації непридатних пестицидів. Ті пестициди, які накопичені за минулі роки, фактично неможливо ідентифікувати і сьогодні єдиним методом їхньої утилізації є спалювання. При цьому утворюється зола, яка може бути використана для дорожнього будівництва або як наповнювач для фундаментів. Цей метод є простішим, доступнішим і немає вимог щодо розділення пестицидів.

Currently, less attention is paid to zinc–carbon batteries, although they are still widely used and are among the major types of batteries collected and recycled. The recycling technologies currently in use do not allow the complete recovery of resources, are not self-sufficient and require additional financing. Therefore, this paper aims to study the possibility of complete recycling of waste zinc–carbon batteries and to suggest the practical use of the final products generated in the recycling process. The possibility of complex processing of spent zinc–carbon batteries using mechanical separation and processing of the battery’s components (steel case, zinc electrode, graphite electrode, polypropylene and paper insulators) is justified. The separation of spent electrolytes from other components of batteries with hydrochloric acid was studied. It was shown that the extraction of Zn²⁺ and NH⁴⁺ cations takes place following the addition of an equivalent amount of Na₃PO₄ solution and water-insoluble NH₄ZnPO₄ salt sedimentation. Waste agglomerate (mixture of MnO₂, MnO(OH), and graphite) was regenerated to its initial composition (MnO₂, graphite) at a temperature of 300–325 °C; manganese (III) hydroxide was oxidized to manganese (IV) dioxide. Thermal destruction of polypropylene and paper insulators with additional introduction of polyethylene into the primary mixture produced pyrolysis liquid, pyrocarbon and pyrolysis gas as products. The practical use of the products obtained and compliance with the environmental requirements of the suggested method of waste batteries recycling were shown.