Siegfried J. Bauer

The evolution of Earth-like habitable planets is a complex process that depends on the geodynamical and geophysical environments. In particular, it is necessary that plate tectonics remain active over billions of years. These geophysically active environments are strongly coupled to a planet's host star parameters, such as mass, luminosity and activity, orbit location of the habitable zone, and the planet's initial water inventory. Depending on the host star's radiation and particle flux evolution, the composition in the thermosphere, and the availability of an active magnetic dynamo, the atmospheres of Earth-like planets within their habitable zones are differently affected due to thermal and nonthermal escape processes. For some planets, strong atmospheric escape could even effect the stability of the atmosphere. Key Words: Terrestrial planets—Atmosphere evolution—Geophysics—Habitability. Astrobiology 10, 45–68. 46

Using the Austrian network of 10 two‐frequency GPS geodetic reference stations, whose location is known with high precision, a study of mesoscale anomalies in the ionosphere over central Europe has been made (and is still in progress for the following years). From the large number of individual observations during the period from 2000 to 2004, maps of small‐scale ionospheric behavior (with a pixel size of 0.5° in latitude and longitude) have been constructed from which local anomalies (at an equivalent height of 250 km) in terms of departure from the model total electron content (TEC) can be recognized. Not all magnetic storms which were most common during the 2000–2002 period of solar maximum showed local effects in the regional ionosphere, but mesoscale ionospheric anomalies which are not (necessarily) associated with space weather were also observed up to 20% of the days of observation, with their highest frequency of occurrence during the winter months (November–February). These anomalies have a typical duration of several hours and seem to be associated with traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) whose origin could lie in gravity waves initiated in the lower atmosphere. Thus TIDs not associated with space weather may play a role in the regional ionosphere but can be detected only by virtue of the dense spatial coverage obtained by a network of GPS stations for precise positioning. From 2000 to 2004, the solar activity and the background ionization decreased considerably. Since TIDs depend on both the properties of atmospheric gravity waves and on the level of ionization, we observed smaller absolute TID amplitudes in 2003–2004 compared with 2000–2001. There is indication that the relative amplitudes have increased slightly, which is consistent with the influence of ion drag on thermosphere dynamics.

Saturn's largest moon, Titan, remains an enigma, explored only by remote sensing from Earth, and by the Voyager and Cassini spacecraft. The most puzzling aspects include the origin of the molecular nitrogen and methane in its atmosphere, and the mechanism(s) by which methane is maintained in the face of rapid destruction by photolysis. The Huygens probe, launched from the Cassini spacecraft, has made the first direct observations of the satellite's surface and lower atmosphere. Here we report direct atmospheric measurements from the Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS), including altitude profiles of the constituents, isotopic ratios and trace species (including organic compounds). The primary constituents were confirmed to be nitrogen and methane. Noble gases other than argon were not detected. The argon includes primordial ³⁶Ar, and the radiogenic isotope ⁴⁰Ar, providing an important constraint on the outgassing history of Titan. Trace organic species, including cyanogen and ethane, were found in surface measurements.

The Huygens probe landed on Titan on 14 January this year, and seven papers published in this issue record the encounter. They describe a world that resembles a primitive Earth, complete with weather systems and geological activity. The ‘Huygens on Titan’ section opens with an overview of the descent and landing and a News and Views piece. Tomasko et al. describe the dry riverbed and drainage channels seen during Huygens' descent, evidence that liquid methane falls as rain or erupts from cryovolcanoes, periodically flooding the surface. This paper includes the images used on the cover to the Huygens section. Niemann et al. measured the abundances of isotopes of argon, nitrogen and carbon in the atmosphere, and conclude that there is no evidence that Titan's methane comes from biological activity. Fulchignoni et al. obtained precise measurements of temperature and pressure from the upper atmosphere right down to the surface. On the way down Huygens recorded evidence for lightning. Zarnecki et al. report that the probe landed on a relatively smooth surface of icy grains with the consistency of wet clay or sand. Isräl et al. report that the aerosols in Titan's clouds have solid cores made from complex organic molecules containing carbon and nitrogen. And Bird et al. found that on average Titan's winds blow in the same direction as the moon rotates, and that close to the surface these winds are very weak, travelling at around walking speed. Aerosols in Titan's atmosphere play an important role in determining its thermal structure1,2,3. They also serve as sinks for organic vapours4 and can act as condensation nuclei for the formation of clouds5,6, where the condensation efficiency will depend on the chemical composition of the aerosols5,7. So far, however, no direct information has been available on the chemical composition of these particles. Here we report an in situ chemical analysis of Titan's aerosols by pyrolysis at 600 °C. Ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) have been identified as the main pyrolysis products. This clearly shows that the aerosol particles include a solid organic refractory core. NH3 and HCN are gaseous chemical fingerprints of the complex organics that constitute this core, and their presence demonstrates that carbon and nitrogen are in the aerosols.

Planet Earth is unique in our solar system as an abode of life. In contrast to its planetary neighbours, the presence of liquid water, a benign atmospheric environment, a solid surface and an internal structure providing a protective magnetic field make it a suitable habitat for man. While natural forces have shaped the Earth over millennia, man through his technological prowess may become a threat to this oasis of life in the solar system.

The magnetic fluxes associated with the Martian crustal remanent magnetization have been studied in order to investigate the global structure of the magnetic field in and above the level of the Martian ionosphere. The intensely and nonuniformly magnetized crustal sources generate an effective large‐scale magnetic field. Reconnection with the interplanetary magnetic field can possibly take place in many localized regions. This will permit solar wind (SW) and more energetic particles to precipitate into and heat the neutral atmosphere by impact ionization. This may occur not only in cusp‐like field structures above nearly vertical field anomalies but also in halos extending several hundreds of kilometers from these sources. Numerous cusp‐like regions may exist above the many crustal anomalies in the southern hemisphere. The large‐scale horizontal magnetic fields due to the crustal sources and induced by the SW interaction are responsible for controlling the detailed structure of the Martian ionosphere. Radio occultation observations in the southern hemisphere show relatively constant and low average values of the electron density scale height and zero dependence on zenith angle in contrast to that of nonmagnetic Venus.