Carlos F. Torres

The NOVA classification groups foods according to the extent and purpose of industrial processing, and observational studies have associated high consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) with adverse health outcomes. Whether the degree of processing alone is a sufficient criterion for assessing food quality, however, remains under debate, since observational associations do not by themselves identify processing as the causal factor. This review critically examines the conceptual basis of the UPF category and the relationships among food processing, formulation, nutritional quality, and health. Processing can have beneficial or detrimental effects depending on the technology, formulation, and food matrix involved: it may improve safety, shelf life, digestibility, bioavailability, and sustainability, but may also reduce the content or functionality of sensitive nutrients and bioactive compounds. Examples from reformulation, functional foods, clean-label development, sugar replacement, and innovative technologies illustrate these interactions. Nutrient Profiling Models, the Nutrient-Rich Food Index, the Food Naturalness Index, and dietary inflammatory indices are discussed as complementary approaches with their own limitations. We conclude that food quality is unlikely to be captured by the degree of processing alone and that future classification systems should integrate nutritional quality, food matrix, formulation, processing, health outcomes, and sustainability.

Olive oil production is an economically and culturally important agro-industrial activity, particularly in Mediterranean regions, but conventional extraction processes generate significant quantities of by-products and may lead to the loss of valuable bioactive compounds. In this context, improving extraction efficiency while preserving oil quality and promoting sustainable processing has become a major research focus. This review examines the composition of virgin olive oil with particular attention to minor bioactive compounds and discusses how conventional processing technologies influence their distribution and retention. The environmental implications of traditional extraction systems, especially the generation of olive mill wastewater and solid residues, are also addressed. Furthermore, emerging and alternative extraction technologies are analyzed, including screw press (expeller) and supercritical CO₂ extraction, highlighting their potential to enhance the recovery of bioactive compounds and reduce environmental impacts. Particular emphasis is placed on water-free or reduced-water extraction approaches and on the valorization of olive mill by-products as part of a circular economy strategy. Overall, innovative extraction technologies can reconcile efficiency, sustainability and quality by minimizing polyphenol losses and wastewater generation, requiring further industrial optimization.

Synthetic packaging is being replaced by biodegradable packaging through the revalorization of food industry by-products. The olive oil (OO) industry, known for producing large quantities of antioxidant-rich by-products, can be a major supplier for sustainable packaging materials. This study aims to valorize a food-grade by-product (defatted flour, DF) from OO extraction produced using a zero-waste strategy that combines expeller press technology and supercritical CO₂ extraction. DF and its aqueous extract (DFE) were combined with carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) to create biodegradable bioactive packaging films. DF contains a high content of insoluble dietary fiber (28.4%) and total phenolic compounds (35,000 ppm), including oleuropein, elenolic acid, hydroxytyrosol, and tyrosol (4324, 3603, 1525, and 157 ppm, respectively). This study examined the effects of DF and DFE on the physicochemical and barrier properties of the films, as well as their capacity to delay oxidation in polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich oil. Films with DF and DFE contained high phenolic content (1500 and 1200 ppm, respectively), and their inclusion improved ultraviolet visible barrier capacity. Additionally, oil oxidation was slower when protected by DF- and DFE-based films than when protected with CMC film alone. This allows their use as protective packaging and potential carriers of bioactive oils to enhance the nutritional and functional qualities of packaged foods.

It is well stablished that docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic (ARA) acids fulfill relevant biological activities, especially in newborns. However, oils containing these fatty acids are not always optimally digestible. To address this, various formulation strategies and lipid delivery systems have been developed. This study compares the following three formulations in an in vitro digestion model to assess bioaccessibility: Enfamil^® DHA & ARA (Mead Johnson & Company), an emulsion of Formulaid^TM, AquaCelle^®, and pasteurized donated human milk, and a previously characterized enzymatic glycerolysis product (GP) of ARA oil and microalgae oil in a 2:1 (w:w) ratio. To evaluate digestibility, parameters such as the percentage of oily phase (OP), micellar phase (MP), free fatty acids, and monoacylglycerols in the digestion product (DP) were considered. Additionally, diacylglycerol content in the MP can be used as an indirect marker of the emulsification capacity of the DP, and consequently, as an indicator of bioaccessibility. The GP demonstrated the highest bioaccessibility, with a DP containing more than 80% MP (<14% OP), rich in free fatty acids (60%) and monoacylglycerols (17%). Furthermore, more than 40% of total diacylglycerols were present in MP, highlighting GPs’ potential as a superior delivery system for DHA and ARA in preterm infant formulations.

The oxidative stability of olive oils extracted by different methods, i.e. conventional 2-phase extraction (cOO), and sequential extraction by expeller press (eOO) and supercritical CO₂ (SCOO), was determined by using two accelerated oxidation methods, Oxitest and Rancimat, in the temperature range 90–160°C. The kinetic analyses carried out provided Arrhenius activation energies, enthalpies, entropies and Gibb’s free energies of activation, temperature coefficients, Q₁₀ factors, and the oxidative stability indexes at 20°C (OSI₂₀) for the different oils. A good correlation between the two techniques was obtained (r² = 0.996). Oxitest showed, however, shorter induction times and less sample quantity (1 g vs. 3 g in Rancimat) requirements, suggesting that it could be a good and faster alternative to Rancimat for the evaluation of the oil oxidative stability. cOO showed OSI₂₀ values of 38.5 and 42.5 months, by the Rancimat and Oxitest methods, respectively. Furthermore, eOO and SCOO showed OSI₂₀ values of 43.3 and 138.6 months by Rancimat and 67 and 142 months by the Oxitest method, respectively. The strong correlation found between the phenolic content of the oils and their OSI₂₀ values confirms that a higher oil phenolic content would improve the oxidative stability of the oils.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are extremely important fatty acids for brain development in the fetus and early childhood. Premature infants face challenges obtaining these two fatty acids from their mothers. It has been reported that supplementation with triacylglycerols (TAGs) with an ARA:DHA (w/w) ratio of 2:1 may be optimal for preterm infants, as presented in commercial formulas such as Formulaid™. This study explored methods to produce TAGs with a 2:1 ratio (ARA:DHA), particularly at the more bioavailable sn-2 position of the glycerol backbone. Blending and enzymatic acidolysis of microalgae oil (rich in DHA) and ARA-rich oil yielded products with the desired ARA:DHA ratio, enhancing sn-2 composition compared to Formulaid™ (1.6 for blending and 2.3 for acidolysis versus 0.9 in Formulaid™). Optimal acidolysis conditions were 45 °C, a 1:3 substrate molar ratio, 10% Candida antarctica lipase, and 4 h. The process was reproducible, and scalable, and the lipase could be reused. In vitro digestion showed that 75.5% of the final product mixture was bio-accessible, comprising 19.1% monoacylglycerols, ~50% free fatty acids, 14.6% TAGs, and 10.1% diacylglycerols, indicating better bio-accessibility than precursor oils.

A predigested product from arachidonic acid oil (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) oil in a 2:1 (w/w) ratio has been developed and evaluated in an in vitro digestion model. To produce this predigested lipid mixture, first, the two oils were enzymatically hydrolyzed up to 90% of free fatty acids (FFAs) were achieved. Then, these two fatty acid (FA) mixtures were mixed in a 2:1 ARA-to-DHA ratio (w/w) and enzymatically esterified with glycerol to produce a mixture of FFAs, mono-, di-, and triacylglycerides. Different glycerol ratios and temperatures were evaluated. The best results were attained at 10 °C and a glycerol-to-FA molar ratio of 3:1. The bio-accessibility of this predigested mixture was studied in an in vitro digestion model. A total of 90% of the digestion product was found in the micellar phase, which contained 30% monoacylglycerides, more than 50% FFAs, and a very small amount of triacylglycerols (3% w/w). All these data indicate an excellent bio-accessibility of this predigested mixture.

Extraction of lupeol from lupin hulls has been carried out using supercritical CO₂ extraction technology under different operating conditions in order to obtain value-added extracts from the raw material of industrial lupin. The operational parameters used include CO₂ pressure and flow and sequential depressurization fractionation. The highest lupeol recovery (96.8%) has been obtained using 320 bar and 50 g/min of CO₂. For sequential depressurization, the best results were obtained with a CO₂ density close to 728 kg/m³ providing up to 92% of lupeol in the extract and an enrichment factor of 1.2. Despite this high enrichment, lupeol recovery decreases to 50% after fractionation. Better extraction recoveries would have been expected and thus further studies are necessary to improve the extraction recovery of extracts with a high lupeol composition.

An alternative olive oil (OO) production process has been developed based on the combination of olive dehydration, followed by extraction with an expeller press. This procedure eliminates the utilization of water and avoids the malaxation stage. Hence, no water residues are generated. In this study, the mentioned alternative methodology was compared to conventional extraction methods. High extraction yields and oil recovery were obtained with our novel procedure. On the contrary, substantial percentages of by-products were generated with conventional methodology. The quality indexes (acidity and peroxide values) of the oils obtained by the combination of dehydration and expeller (dOO) were 0.4% of oleic acid and 3 meq O₂/kg of oil, respectively. Furthermore, none of the applied processes affected the resulting OO’s fatty acid composition and lipid profile. Total phenolic content was up to four times higher for dOO than for other olive oils and it showed resistance to oxidation with an oxidative stability index about five times higher than that for conventional olive oils.